Introduction:
The four cardinal principles of Jain way of life are:
- Ahiṅsā or non violence in conduct
- Aparigraha or Non-possession in life and society
- Anekānta or multiplicity of view points in thoughts
- Syādvāda or Conditional dialectic in speech.
Oxford American Desk dictionary defines Tolerance as:
1. Willingness or ability to tolerate
2. Forbearance
3. Capacity to tolerate
4. Allowable variation in any measurable propertyAnd ‘To tolerate’ is defined as “to allow the existence or occurrence of others without interference”. We shall review tolerance as per different Jain doctrines as identified above.
A. Doctrine of Anekanta:
A systematic formulation of Anekāntavāda is found in Samantabhadra’s Āpta Mīmāṅsā (3-4th cen. A. D.). However, the doctrine is so assimilating that it has given rise to various interpretations. It will be interesting to see a few of them:
In order to understand the scope and denotation of Anekāntavāda, it is useful to make a distinction between two senses of the term. In the first place, the term is used to denote the Jain metaphysical doctrine, or the Jaina view of Reality. The Jains hold that Reality is manifold, each substance does have infinite qualities and modifications. According to them, each substance has a multi-faceted nature, consists of diverse forms and modes, of innumerable aspects. In this sense, the term can be correctly translated as ‘the theory of manifoldness of reality’.
However, the term Anekāntavāda is also used for the Jaina philosophical method, which allows for reconciliation, integrations and synthesis of conflicting philosophic views. Jains argue that different philosophers, when they construct different philosophical systems, emphasize different ‘standpoints’. They further point out that as long as we emphasize one aspect or standpoint., while being fully aware that this is only one out of many, equally viable standpoints, we employ a right philosophical method. But when we emphasize only one standpoint by excluding all others, we employ an incorrect philosophic method. The aim of Anekānta philosophy is to expose an incorrect philosophic method and isolate and identify the right philosophical method.
To use other words, Anekāntavāda is that method of philosophy, which recognizes all the philosophical theories to be the partially true expressions of reality (S.S. Divakara’s Sanmati Tarka). As every theory is true partially, and not exclusively, there is no perfect theory of reality. The perfect view of Reality will be obtained only by recognizing that our theory is one of the many theories that are equally (partially) true. In this sense, Anekāntavāda advocates a sort of relativistic approach to reality and denies supremacy to any one view about reality.
Anekāntavāda as A Method:
In the light of the twofold exposition of Anekāntavāda viz theory of multiple aspects of a substance and the other as the theory of non-exclusiveness of any theory/expression about reality, it is significant to see the relation of Anekāntavāda to the doctrine of Tolerance.
In the first exposition, Anekāntavāda represents the metaphysical view of Jainism. In this sense, it is one of the many metaphysical theories, trying to reconcile the extremes of permanence and charge, one and many, but at the same time having its own limitations. In the second exposition, Anekāntavāda stands for a metaphilosophical approach that vouches for a method, which allows for reconciliation, integration and synthesis of conflicting philosophical views.
The philosophical roots of the doctrine of Anekāntavāda can be traced backed to a very ancient theory called vibhajya-vāda. It is an indirect method of answering metaphysical questions through analysis and classification of the senses of words contained in those questions. It is a method of ‘breaking up’ the whole questions into parts and seeking answer to all of them, thereby to the whole questions. vibhajya-vāda however takes into consideration the relativity of each part to the whole and looks at each part independently.
The method of Anekāntavāda is to analyze the different senses of, and thereby clarify the ambiguity contained in those predicate - expressions. Further, the possible alternatives are accepted with proper qualifications and conditionalization. Thus, it is a view that adopts nondogmatic and exploratory approach to philosophical and metaphysical questions. It is a method of partial acceptance of both the extremes. In this, the seemingly contradictory predictions are not rejected, but are accepted with qualifications, and the apparent contradiction is avoided by bringing out the different senses in which these predictions could be used. This is how it cannot be, strictly speaking, the acceptance of a real contradiction, as there is no contradiction at all! To give an example, the world from the point of view of continuity, may be called eternal, but from the point of view of change of its states, it is non-eternal. Thus, the world can be regarded as both eternal and non-eternal without being contradictory. Thus, Anekāntavāda is a method of synthesis and toleration. The essence of Anekāntavāda lies in exposing and making explicit the standpoints of different philosophical schools and the existence of opposites at the same time in the same entity or environment.
Anekāntavāda and Tolerance:
The dictionary meaning of ‘Tolerance’ exposes the negative aspect of acceptance in a dominant manner. If tolerance is taken to mean ‘ability or capacity to tolerate’, it will point to toleration out of compulsion, out of helplessness or out of dire need of survival. For example, tolerating the baddies in the classroom or undisciplined behavior or even the notorious people in the society. It may even indicate the attitude of treating the other person with condemnation or the attitude of superiority complex and treating other as inferior, e.g. rich people tolerating poor people, scholars in the class tolerating the mediocre students, powerful nations tolerating weak, underdeveloped countries etc. However the doctrine of Anekāntavāda is based on the definition of reality as existent (substance is the indication of existent, existent is with origination, destruction and permanence and substance is with attributes and modes). Thus Anekāntavāda is a philosophy of intermixture and tolerance (better known as reconciliation to the existence of opposite attributes simultaneously) and presupposes balanced and equitable thinking rather than from a position of strength or weakness.
Thus it would be wrong to equate Anekāntavāda with such negativity, because, Anekāntavāda does not reflect negativity. It does not indicate the falsity or invalidity of any theory, but emphasizes the element of truth in every theory. Its focus is on pointing out the extent of acceptability of every view rather than bringing out the reasons for denial. And the reason for the emphasis on positivism is that, every theory, according to Anekāntavāda, is only a partial description/exposition of reality. Hence, it cannot be regarded as the view that holds the capacity to ‘tolerate’ the other views, but rather it can correctly be described as that view which treats all other views, including itself, with equanimity. In holding such temper of equanimity, Anekāntavāda demands surrender of undue pride in one’s own existence and supremacy and tend to develop humility and senses of respect towards other perspectives.
Applications of Anekāntavāda:
Historically, Anekāntavāda developed through two theories, Nayavāda, i.e. the doctrine of standpoints, and Syādvāda, i. e. the three-valued logic, including the value of indescribability. Through these two theories, Anekāntavāda throws light on the relativity in the use of language and the truth-values of the statements, and emphasizes the non-dogmatic approach in both the fields. Both these theories could be very helpful in solving the battles on the ground of metaphysics. The prime intention of Anekāntavāda was to bring to an end the rivalry among various metaphysical theories by pointing out that every theory is a partial expression of Reality like every other theory.
In the present circumstances of communal disturbances and religious tensions everywhere, Anekāntavāda can be applied as a paradigm to solve these battles. It can be convinced to the classes and masses that all religions are different pathways to the same goal, and that there is no room for superiority or inferiority of any religion. All religious faiths are equally respectable. The theory can be applied to many spheres of life where there are battles arising out of misunderstanding. And it can be well understood that it is the theory advocating equanimity among and respect towards all the possible alternatives, rather than the ability to ‘tolerate’. Similarly in our democratic form of government, doctrine of Anekāntavāda is very important for both the ruling and opposition parties to accept existence of each as real and learn to live with each other in a logical and peaceful manner.
Samantbahdra gave an excellent example to show application of Anekāntavāda to develop tolerance. “ The king wanted his crown of gold to be melted and made into bangles for princes. The prince became sad and the princess became happy but the king was neither happy nor sad as he saw gold in both the situations while the prince saw loss of crown and the princess gain of bangles.’ Thus Anekāntavāda is a theory of tolerance in the broadest sense of the term.
B. Ahiṅsā
Ahiṅsā is the first alphabet of Jain doctrine. Mahāvīra tells Gautam in Ācārāṅga (first chapter) ‘the one whom you give pain or torment is none other than you. All living beings are equal and want happiness. No one wants pain.’ Such sermons by Mahāvīra create a feeling in our mind of accepting the existence of everybody, be he or she is a friend or foe, and controlling actions even when provoked. If this is not practiced, then the bigger looser is us and not the other party towards whom we become intolerant. Later Jain thinkers like Umā Svāti and others gave ‘Live and let live’ and All living beings cooperate or help each other’ as the main slogans or principles of Jains. The first slogan asks us to accept the principle of coexistence and the second to help and cooperate with others to help them during the period of troubles so that they can come out of it and live happily. Doctrine of karma also help us in being tolerant as we start seeing the intolerance of others towards as an effect of our previous such deeds and should be washed away now lest we continue to suffer with intolerance in future also.
Today we see terrorism and violence becoming rampant and promoted even by governments of some of the powerful countries. Rather than understand and rehabilitate, we see development and use of newer and more potent means of destruction and using them to combat violence. The results are however more destructive and even the countries or communities who promote violence become the biggest victims of violence themselves. On the other hand we see countries like Netherlands, which became almost totally destroyed after foreign occupation, accepted existence of all natural, location, size problems and then devised solutions incorporating these in their planning. We see today the same country becoming one of the most prosperous and desired places to live. Similarly we see the countries who promoted terrorism and violence have become victims of the same themselves.
In our own lives, we see children who are raised in a family environment of anger, intolerance or neglect grow as violent and intolerant adults while children brought with love, care and understanding make the same children as tolerant and happy citizens.
C. Ethics postulates of Jains
In Jain literature, we find a number of terms, like vinaya (modesty), saṅyama (self restraint), tapa (austerities, penance), samatā (equanimity) etc. used to represent the practice of the principle of Ahiṅsā. Jain ethical postulates, defined clearly for householders and monks are meant as the norms or commandments to progress towards achieving excellence, be it for spiritual or worldly beneficence.
The rules start from basic virtues (mulagūṇas), giving up evil habits/ addictions (seven vyasanas), observing six essential duties (āvaśyakas) to start with. An important aspect of āvaśyakas is to practice pratikṛamaṇa, ālocanā and prāyaścita, which require the practitioner to review his/her daily activities performed, seek forgiveness for the wrongs and promise not to repeat them again so that the self imposed discipline improves on a daily basis. At the stage when a Jain develops firm belief in Jain metaphysics, then he/she accepts vows (major for ascetics) and minor for householders) and performs twelve fold austerities (tapa). All these practices help develop equanimity and tolerance towards one and all while making ourselves stronger. Concept of winning over 22 afflictions (pariṣahas) by monks offer an excellent example of emphasizing tolerance in the Jain code of conduct for spiritual purification.
Main References
- “The Central Philosophy of Jainism (Anekāntavāda)” By. B. K. Matilal, Pub. By L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1981.
- “Anekāntavāda as a Meta-philosophy” By S. Gopalan
- Ācārāṅga