Art and Architecture in Jainism

Art and Architecture in Jainism

The contribution of the Jainas to art and architecture is great. It has enriched the whole body of Indian art and architecture. It has also provided certain special forms, symbols etc. The Jainas are justly famous for their patronage to art and architecture. By Jaina art and architecture we mean specimens of art and architecture created under the patronage of the Jainas. The earliest historical reference to some forms of Jaina art is associated with king Khāravela of Kaliṅga. The earliest known Jaina architecture belongs to the Mauryan period.

Jaina Iconography:

It is generally agreed that originally Brāhmaṇical iconography did not include idol-worship or image-worship. As regards non-Brāhmaṇical iconography, it seems that the introduction of image-worship of the Jina was earlier than that of the Buddha. In other words, the introduction of image-worship in Jaina iconography was probably earlier than that in Buddhist iconography.

Even in Jaina iconography, introduction of the Jina-image, i.e., the image of a Tīrthaṅkara, seems to be a later development. No Jaina canonical text refers to images of or shrines dedicated to any of the 24 Tīrthaṅkaras. They mention a number of caityas (shrines) which were dedicated to Yakṣas. There is a general reference to arhat-caitya (jina-caitya) in the Vyākhyāprajñapti (Bhagavatī) and Upāsakadaśā Aṅga Sūtras. The Jñātādharmakathā makes a general reference to the worship of Jina-images by Draupadī. We come across descriptions of eternal images (śāśvata pratimās) in the Rājapraśnīya, Sthānāṅga and Jīvābhigama Sutras.

Scholars are of the opinion that at least up to the beginning of the fourth century B.C. image-worship of the Jina did not become popular among the Jainas. The highly polished mutilated torso of a Jina-image obtained from Lohanipur (near Patna) shows that in the third century B.C. or slightly earlier worship of the Jina-image had started. References to the worship of Jina-images are very few in the Jaina canonical texts. Even these passages might have been composed in a later age like so many other passages. This suggests that image-worship of the Jina might not have existed during the age of Lord Mahāvīra or his immediate successors.

Earliest Jaina Icons:

Two torsoes of Jina-images obtained from Lohanipur are the earliest known Jaina icons belonging to the Mauryan period. One of them is highly polished, whereas the other is unpolished. Along with these torsoes were discovered from the foundations of a square temple a large quantity of bricks and a worn silver punch-marked coin. The torsoes represent some Tīrthaṅkaras and the foundations form the earliest excavated site of a Jaina temple. The Mauryan king Samprati is regarded as a great patron of Jainism. He is well-known as a builder of numerous Jaina temples. There is, however, no archaeological evidence in this regard.

Two Jaina Caves:

Two caves excavated in the Udayagiri and Khaṇḍagiri hills in Orissa are noteworthy Jaina relics of the Śuṅga period. The Hāthīgumphā is an extensive natural cave which was improved by the Jaina king Khāravela of Kaliṅga. The Rānīguṁphā is the most spacious and elaborately carved of all the Orissan caves. It has fine sculptured adornments which include fighting scenes, the hunting of a winged deer, the carrying off of a woman and the like. The cave consists of two storeys, each originally provided with a verandah.

Jaina Stupa:

The remains of a Jaina stūpa of brickwork and two ruined temples have been excavated in the Kaṅkālī Ṭilā (mound) at Mathurā. A second century A.D. inscription has been found in the mound. This inscription says that the stūpa was built by gods. The meaning suggested by this type of belief is that at that time the stūpa was regarded to be of immemorial antiquity. The Vividha-tīrtha-kalpa (14th century A.D.) says that the stūpa was repaired in the time of Lord Pārśva (877-777 B. C.) and renovated by Bappabhaṭṭi Sūri after a thousand years. It was built in honour of Lord Supārśva, the seventh Tīrthaṅkara.

The sculptures as well as the inscriptions found at Mathurā are of much interest for the history of Jainism. There exists an āyāgapaṭṭa or tablet of homage which was sculptured in relief and erected in a temple for the purpose of adoration. The inscription on the tablet begins with the words 'Adoration to the Arhat Vardhamāna' and indicates that it was the gift of a courtesan named Vasu, the daughter of Loṇaśobhikā. The main representation is of a Jaina stūpa which stands on a high platform surrounded by a railing and is approached by nine steps leading up to an ornamental gateway. There is another such tablet which has in the centre a figure of a seated Jina surrounded by various symbols.

Rajgir Temple:

There is a ruined temple on the Vaibhāragiri (hill) at Rājagṛha (Rajgir). It consists of a central chamber surrounded on all sides by a row of cells. On a lower level than that of the main building there is another shrine which has a seated image of Lord Neminātha, the twenty-second Tīrthaṅkara. The accompanying inscription is in Gupta characters. The conch symbol flanks either side of the Dharmacakra (Wheel of Law) in the centre of the pedestal.

Akota Jaina Bronze:

A Jaina bronze belonging to the Gupta period (5th century A.D.) has been discovered from Akota (near Baroda). It is a standing image of Lord Ṛṣabha, the first Tīrthaṅkara. Its pedestal is lost and it is badly mutilated at the back, hands and legs. It is the earliest known Jina-image with a dhoti (lower garment). A large number of Jaina bronzes belonging to the period between the 6th and 11th centuries A.D. have been found in the Akota hoard.

Ellora Jaina Cave Temple:

The Indra-sabhā at Ellora is the best of the known Jaina cave temples of the medieval period. It is cut out of the solid rock. The courtyard is protected by a rock screen wall facing the south. In the east is a chapel with two pillars in the front and two at the back. Entering the courtyard, on the right is an elephant on a pedestal and on the left is a monolithic column, now fallen, surmounted by a quadruple image of a Tīrthaṅkara. In the centre is an elaborate square porch over another quadruple image. A sort of double verandah gives access to the lower hall of the temple. There are two large images of Lord Śānti, the sixteenth Tīrthaṅkara, at one end of the verandah. At the other end is a stone stairway leading to the upper hall. Both the halls are adorned with pillars. The walls of the upper hall are filled with sculptured Jina-figures. Among the sculptured figures the most prominent are Lord Pārśva, Lord Mahāvīra and Gommata (Bāhubali).

Colossus of Gommatesvara:

Jaina architecture in South India is represented by two types of shrines: bastis and bettas. The bastis (also basadi) are regular temples containing images of Tīrthaṅkaras. The bettas are open-air courtyards on the summits of hills containing colossal images of Gommaṭeśvara. Gommaṭa or Gommaṭeśvara is another name of Bāhubali, the son of Ṛṣabha, the first Tīrthaṅkara.

At Śravaṇa Belgolā (62 miles from Mysore) there is a colossus of Gommaṭeśvara on the summit (470 ft. above the plain) on the Vindhyagiri hill. The huge image stands majestically in almost perfect state of preservation in spite of its antiquity. Its height is 57 ft., the breadth across the shoulders is 26 ft., the toe is 2,75 ft. long, the middle finger is 5,25 ft. long, the height of the heel is 2,75 ft., the lobe of the ear is 5,5 ft. in length and the waist is 10 ft. The figure is nude and stands erect facing north. It is cut out of the solid rock. This enormous statue is clearly visible within the radius of 15 miles from Śravaṇa Belgolā (Jainbidri). The ascent is made by nearly 500 steps hewn in the granite.

We learn from the inscriptions at the side of the statue that Cāmuṇḍarāya caused this image to be made. He was the famous minister of Rājamalla or Rācamalla who ruled from 974 to 984 A.D. It seems certain that the statue was hewn out about 983 A.D. The surrounding cloister was built in 1116 A.D.

Temple of Pārśvanātha at Khajuraho:

Khajurāho was one of the important centres of Jainism in North India. Of the temples standing there about one-third are Jaina. The largest and finest of all these Jaina sanctuaries is the temple of Pārśvanātha. Like most of the temples it appears to have been erected between 950 and 1050 A. D. It is about sixty-two feet in length and half that in breadth. The outside walls are adorned with numerous bands of mouldings and three horizontal rows of sculptured statues.

Dilwara Jaina Temples:

In an area known as Dilwara on Mount Abu there stand four principal Jaina temples of which two are most famous and in certain respects remain unsurpassed in India which is well-known for such works. The older of the two, known as Vimal Vasahi, was built in 1031 A.D. by Vimal Shah, a wealthy Jaina householder. It was dedicated to Ādinātha (Lord Ṛṣabha), the first Tīrthaṅkara. The other temple was built in 1230 A.D by Tejpal and Vastupal, two wealthy Jaina brothers. It was dedicated to Neminātha (Lord Ariṣṭanemi), the twenty-second Tīrthaṅkara. Vimal Shah, Tejpal and Vastupal were ministers of Gujarat.

The two temples are similar in plan. They are relatively plain on the exterior but surprisingly rich in interior adornment. Both are constructed entirely of white marble. The setting of these temples on the hill at a height of more than four thousand feet is most picturesque. Each of the temples stands in a rectangular walled area surrounded by recesses with statues of Tīrthaṅkaras and other deities. The central structure is a cell with a pyramidal roof. Connected with this cell is a closed hall. In front of this hall is an extensive open portico or assembly hall decorated with free-standing columns and a beautiful dome supported by eight pillars. The beautiful ornamentation of these sanctuaries is astonishing. The minutely carved adornment of their ceilings, pillars, doorways, panels and niches is marvellous. The crisp, thin, translucent, shell-like treatment of the marble is simply surprising. The work is wonderfully delicate and extraordinarily delightful.

Temple-cities:

Śatruñjaya (near Palitana) in Gujarat is the most famous temple-city. It has more than five hundred shrines in separate enclosures. The total number of images of Tīrthaṅkaras exceeds five thousand. Some of the sanctuaries are as old as the tenth century. The temple of Ādinātha (Lord Ṛṣabha) in the Vimalavasi Tunk was built in 1530 A.D. upon the site of another older temple erected in 960 A.D. An image of Puṇḍarīka in a small cell of the temple is one of the most beautiful specimens of the tenth century sculpture. A small shrine built by the Nagarseth of Ahmedabad in 1840 A. D. is a pillared hall of unique design with external verandahs. The floor is divided by twelve piers into nine small squares. The domes of the roof are supported by arches between these piers. It has entrances from all the four sides, the principal being on the west. Some temples at Śatruñjaya have undergone repairs and renovations several times.

Girnar (near Junagadh) is another famous temple-city in Gujarat. The Neminātha temple is the largest and perhaps the oldest of all the Jaina temples here. An inscription upon it records that it was repaired in 1278 A.D. The temple stands in a quadrangular courtyard (195x130 feet). It is surrounded by about seventy cells, each containing a seated image of a Tīrthaṅkara. The temple itself consists of two halls with two porches and a cell with an image of Neminātha (Lord Ariṣṭanemi).

The Vastupal temple (about 1230 A. D.) is a triple structure composed of three separate shrines. Leading out of the three sides of the central hall, the fourth side forms the entrance. The central shrine is dedicated to Mallinātha, the nineteenth Tīrthaṅkara. The northern shrine contains a representation of Mount Meru. The southern shrine represents Mount Sammeta.

Caumukha Shrine of Adinatha:

Ranpur or Ranakpur (Jodhpur-Rajasthan) is famous for its Caumukha (four-faced) shrine of Ādinātha built in 1439 A.D. The temple is also known as Caturmukha-yug-ādīśvara-vihāra and Tribhuvanadīpaka-caturmukha-jinā-laya. It covers a space of over forty thousand square feet. It consists of twenty-nine halls containing as many as four hundred and twenty pillars, the designs of no two of which are alike. The entire complex is erected on a lofty plinth surrounded by a high and solid boundary wall. It is, in fact, an aggregation of shrines symmetrically disposed around a central one. The interior contains a variety and multiplicity of well-proportioned parts. It presents unending vistas of columns interrupted at intervals by open courts and illuminated by direct and reflected light arrangements.

Wall-painting:

There are traces of paintings in one of the Jaina caves near Bhubaneswar in Orissa, assignable to the 1st century B.C. The earliest reference to Jaina painting occurs in the Hāthīgumphā inscription of King Khāravela (161 B.C.). Some important Jaina paintings belonging to the 7th century A.D. have been discovered at Sittannavasal near Tanjore. They are preserved on the ceilings, capitals and upper parts of the pillars of a rock-cut Jaina temple. The fresco adorning the entire ceiling of the verandah of the shrine is most important as well as most interesting from the artistic viewpoint. It shows a tank covered with lotus-flowers and also depicts fish, geese, buffaloes, elephants and three men. The men are depicted in a very attractive way. They are shown holding lotuses in their hands. The pillars show figures of dancing girls. These paintings are not essentially different from the contemporary ones at Ajanta.

There are remains of beautiful wall-paintings in a Jaina temple at Tiruparuttikunram or Jina-Kāñcī (Conjeevaram). The Jaina monastery in the village of Śravaṇa Belgolā is adorned with various frescoes.

Miniature Painting:

Adornment of scriptures with miniature paintings was another interesting development in the artistic expression of Jainism. A school which produced such paintings started flourishing in Gujarat and Rajasthan in the beginning of the 12th century and continued for many centuries thereafter. The texts most frequently chosen for adornment were the Kalpasūtra, the Kālakācāryakathā and the Uttarādhyayana-sūtra.

The earliest known examples of Jaina miniature paintings are the decorative roundels in the palm-leaf manuscripts of the Niśīthacūrṇi, dated 1100 A. D. The two miniatures in a palm-leaf manuscript of the Jñātādharmakathā and other Aṅga texts, dated 1127 A. D., are more significant. The finest Jaina miniatures (palm-leaf and paper) belong to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Most of these paintings are relating to the Kalpasūtra and the Kālakācāryakathā. The history of the Jaina art of painting comes down to modern times, particularly in the specimens of illustrated scrolls of invitation (vijñaptipatras) sent to Jaina preceptors by the Jaina community of a town or village requesting them to come and visit their place or to spend the next rainy season there. The earliest known specimen belongs to the 17th century A. D. Paintings on cloth are available in the form of paṭas. The earliest known paṭas belongs to 1354 A.D.