Compendium of Jainism: III ►After Mahavira And The Schism

It is immensely difficult to be the torchbearer of a great Master. Mention has already been made that Indrabhūti Gautama was initiated into the Order of Śravaṇas along with his two brothers and that Gautama became the first Gaṇadhara or the Apostle- Of the eleven Gaṇadharas or apostles, Indrabhūti and Sudharma were the only persons to survive their Master. Mahavira was the head of an excellent community of 14000 monks; 36000 nuns, 159000 male lay-votaries and 3)800 female lay-votaries.^[1] Indrabhūti attained liberation 12 years after his Master had attained Nirvana. Sudharma followed him eight years later. Jambūsvāmi was the disciple of Sudharman and he attained Nirvana 64 years after the Nirvana of Mahavira.

Bhadrabāhu and Sīlabhadra were contemporaries in the sixth generation after Sudharman had attained liberation. It is natural that there should be differences between the groups of followers about the tenets preached by the Tīrthankara. Even during the life time of Mahavira, Makkhali Gośāla and Jamāli had differences with their Master and broke away from him. The former started his own sect of Ājīvikas while the letter founded a sect known as Bahurata.

It appears from the Buddhistic literature that there used to be quarrels amongst the monks who were followers of Mahavira. From the accounts given in the Dīghanikāya, it appears that the quarrels relate to the correctness or superiority of knowledge of the tenets as propounded by Mahavira. Sometimes, there used to be serious exchanges of words; assaults were not unusual.

It is very difficult to say that these quarrels gave rise to the new sects- It appears that even during the time of Pārśva, there used to be some monks who wore short loin clothes but they had no differences either with their Master or with his successor- There are, however, differing accounts of the birth of new schisms. There are some legends also.

The migration of Bhadraba.hu along with a body of 12000 monks to the South sometime between 296 or 298 B. C, is a landmark in the history of Jainism. The first inscription of 600 A. D. at Śravaṇabeḷagoḷa in Karnataka refers to this event and the relevant part may be quoted here: "Now indeed, after the sun Mahavira who had risen to elevate the whole world and who had shone with a thousand brilliant rays, his virtues which caused the blooming of the lotuses, the blessed people, nourished the lake of the supreme Jaina doctrine which was an abode of pre-eminent virtues had completely set, Bhadrabāhu Svāmi, of lineage rendered illustrious by a succession of great men who came in regular descent from the venerable supreme ṛśi Gautama-Gaṇadhara, his immediate disciple Lohācārya, Jambu, Viṣṇudeva, Aparājita, Govardhana, Bhadrabāhu, Viśākha, Proṣṭhila, Kṛttikārya, Jayanāma, Siddhārtha, Dhṛtiṣeṇa, Buddhila and other teachers, who was acquainted with the true nature of the eight-fold great omen and foretold in Ujjayani a calamity lasting for a period of twelve years, the entire Sangha (or the community) set out from the North to the South and reached by degrees a country with many hundreds of villages and filled with happy people..."^[2] According to the tradition, Chandragupta Maurya who was Emperor abdicated his throne and accompanied the Śrutakevalin. Two inscriptions (Nos. 17 & 18 on the Chandragiri Hill and two others found near Śrīrangapattaṇam mention Bhadrabāhu and Chandragupta as two ascetics, That the two came together to Śravaṇabeḷagoḷa is confirmed by a Kannada work 'Munivaṁśābhyudaya' by a poet called Cidānandakavi who wrote his work in 1680 A. D.

The historicity of this event has been doubted by some scholars. R. Narasimhacharya has referred to Dr. Leumnn as saying that the migration to the South is "the initial fact of the Digamber tradition". Dr Hoernle after a critical examination of the Jaina paṭṭāvalis or the lists of succession of Gurus, says: "Before Bhadrabāhu, the Jain community was undivided; with him, the Digambaras separated from the Śvetāmbaras.... The Digambara separation originally took place as a result of the migration southwards under Bhadrabāhu in consequence of a severe famine in Bihar, the original home of the undivided Jaina community".^[3] R. Narasimhacharya opines that the Jaina tradition may be accepted as a working hypothesis until the contrary is proved by future research.^[4] S. R. Sharma has stated that "the conclusion of the late Dr. V. A. Smith, regarding the possibility of the persistent tradition about Chandragupta Maurya having accompanied Bhadrabāhu (the last of the Jaina Śrutakevalin) to Mysore and died there by Sallekhana may be accepted without more ado."^[5] Recent researches have not brought out to light any contrary evidence.

The Śvetāmbara tradition has two versions about the division of the community:

1. Bhadrabāhu went to Nepal and remained there engaged in meditation. During his absence, Sthūlabhadra called an assembly of all followers and the canonical texts of the twelve Angas. The Digambras did not accept the authenticity of the scriptures, as they believed that the original texts were lost long ago. So there was a division in the community.
2. There was a monk by name Śivabhūti. Prior to his initiation, he was in the service of a king. When he accepted asceticism, the King gave some beautiful clothes including a blanket. Śivabhūti's Guru asked him to throw away those clothes as their possession would involve attachment to property, Śivabhūti declined to do so. Then the Guru himself tore those clothes. Śivabhūti got angry, separated from his master and started a new sect of the Śvetāmbaras.

None of these two versions has any historical support. It appears to me that the divisions in the community must have been gradual and must have assumed a definite shape at some period. After the departure of Bhadrabāhū Śrutakevalin to the South, Sthūlabhadra and his disciples remained in the North. There is little doubt that there were Digambaras in the North at the time of the invasion of India by Alexander (327-326 B.C.) as the Greek historians have referred to them as gymosophists, that is, naked Philosophers. There appear to have been some monks during the time of Pārśva who wore a loin cloth. Mahavira himself adhered to the cult of nudity. Hence the practice of wearing a loin cloth did not assume any importance in his time. P. Bechardas, a Śvetāmbara Pandit expresses the view that it was only after the Nirvana of Jambu- Svāmi that laxity in conduct must have started, departing from the rigorous rules laid down by Mahavira and that the poison tree of division seems to have started growing.

The monks started using white clothes for covering part of their bodies and possessing some wooden pots. The practice of adorning the idols of Tirthankaras with gold and diamond ornaments and silk cloth came into vogue. S. Gopalan holds the view that the division became permanent in 83 A. D.^[6] Hermann Jacobi opines that the sect of Ardhaphalakas developed in 80 A. D. into the Śvetāmbara sect and observes: "It is possible that the separation of the Jaina church took place gradually, an individual development going on in both the groups living at a great distance from one another, and that they became aware of their mutual difference about the end of the 1st century A. D. But the difference is small in their articles of faith."^[7] J. L. Jaini holds similar views: The division of the Jaina community into two sects of Śvetāmbaras, "white- robed" and Digambaras, "sky-robed", i. e. naked, took place according to their concurrent testimony, 609 years after Mahavira, i. e. about 80 A. D. But in germ it existed as early as the time of the First Council.^[8]

A. L. Basharn is quite positive in his views: "Out of this migration arose the great schism of Jainism, on a point of monastic discipline. Bhadrabāhu, the elder of the community, who had led the emigrants, had insisted on the retention of the rule of nudity, which Mahavira had established. Sthūlabhadra, the leader of the monks who had remained in the North, allowed his followers to wear white garments., owing to the hardships and confusions of the famine. Hence arose the two sects of Jainas, the Digambaras ("space-clad" or naked), and the Śvetāmbaras ("White-clad"). The schism did not become final until the 1st Century A.D."^[9]Mrs. Stevenson also says the division became final in A. D. 79 or 82.^[10]

Though there never were any fundamental doctrinal differences between the two sects, the division continues to this day. The minor differences between the two sects are:

1. The Śvetāmbara monks wear white clothes and their idols are decorated with gold and diamond ornaments, with glass eyes and silk jackets. The Digambara monks of the ideal type are naked as also their idols of Tirthankaras.
2. Digambaras hold that on account of their physical conditions and social disabilities, women as women cannot attain liberation. The Śvetāmbaras hold the contrary view.
3. It has already been noted that according to the Digambara tradition Mahavira was unmarried while Śvetāmbaras hold that he was married and had a daughter.
4. The Śvetāmbaras believe in the validity and sacredness of canonical literature that is the twelve Aṅgās and Sutras as they exist now while Digambaras hold that the original and genuine texts were lost long ago.
5. The Śvetāmbaras hold the view that the Omniscient or the liberated Kevalins took food while the Digambaras do not support it.
6. The Śvetāmbaras hold that seventeenth Tīrthankara Mallinātha was a female by name Malli while the Digambaras hold that he was male.
7. The Śvetāmbara monks collect their food from different houses while the Digambara monks take food standing in one house only where there preconceived idea (saṅkalpa) is fulfilled.

The ideal ascetics of this sect are naked. They possess a small bunch of peacock feathers (piccha) for the purpose of delicately moving aside living insects etc. if there be any before sitting on a ground or a plank. They also carry a kamaṇḍalu or a kind of wooden pot for water which they carry when they go out to answer the calls of nature. They take food only once by the use of their palms joined together to serve as a plate. Though it had been enjoined that they should stay in gardens and uninhabited house, they have started staying in villages and towns. Guṇabhadra has expressed his displeasure in regard to this change of life. This laxity seems to have continued until some monks started living in temples. This did not develop into a regular practice as in the case of Śvetāmbaras.

Even amongst the Digambaras, some groups or Sanghas seem to have developed. Mūla Sangha seems to have been popular as it is mentioned in some of the inscriptions at Śravaṇabeḷagoḷa. During the time of Indranandi, Sanghas like Vīra, Aparājita Sena, Bhadra Simha, Candra etc. seem to have come into existence in course of time. They received recognition at the time of Arhadbali. In Vikrama Samvat 753 Kumar Sena Muni established the Kāstha Sangha. They started using a bunch (piccha) of hair of cattle-tail instead of feathers of peacocks. They used to initiate women as nuns and administer the oath of celibacy to them. Two hundred years later, a Sangha known as Mathurāsangha came to be founded in Mathura. The monks of this Sangha dispensed with piccha altogether. One Vajrasūri seems to have started a Sangha by name Drāviḍa-sangha. Though there was laxity in their conduct, they used to have temples repaired and receive gifts of lands etc. for the use of temples.

There are three sub-sects amongst the Digambaras. viz.

1. Terāhapantha
2. Bīsapantha
3. Tārāṇapantha.

There are also some minor sects in South India like Pānchamas, Caturtha, Bogara, Setavāḷa etc. but they seem to have originated on the basis of occupations; they are not mentioned in any of the books or other records of historical value.

The heads of Jaina Maṭhas were called Bhaṭṭārakas. They possessed property and other paraphernalia incidental to their office. A section of the community seems to have taken objection to their way of life and stopped respecting them or saluting them. One Banārasīdasa, a resident of Agra seems to have headed this opposition sometime in the 18th century. The group came to be known as Terāhapanthi. The followers do not respect the Bhaṭṭārakas. They are opposed to decorating the idols They prohibit the use of flowers and saffron in the worship. This group spread to all parts of India.

Bisapantha

The supporters of the Bhaṭṭārakas styled themselves as Bīsapanthis. They follow the customary practices of worship of naked idols. They use flowers and scented agarbattis (incense sticks) at the time of worship and make offerings of fruits etc.

These groups continued to live in peace and luckily there have been no quarrels between them. They accept the scriptures of Digambaras.

One person by name Tāranataranasvāmi who died in Malhargadha in the former princely state of Gwaliar in 1515 A. D. was the originator of this creed. The place of his Samadhi is regarded as a place of pilgrimage by his followers. They prohibit idol worship. They build temples but keep sacred books for worship. They do not offer articles like fruits and flowers at the time of worship. Besides the books sacred to the Digambaras, they also worship the books written by their Ācāryas. Their population is mostly confined to Madhya Pradesh.

There are three sub-sects among the Śvetāmbaras; Murti- pūjaka, Sthānakavāsi and Terāpanthi. Reference has already been made about the features of Śvetāmbara monks. Apart from wearing white clothes, they worship idols bedecked with ornaments, costly silks and diamonds. The monks began to reside in temples and began to make accumulations of money etc. They eat food and delicacies brought by women and make use of scents, dhūpa etc. for worship. They sing and make predictions on astrological data. There are many gachhā among them like Upakeśagaehha, Kharatara, Tapāgaccha etc.

Even though there are differences of opinions about the precise data of the origin of this sub-sect, it appears to have originated in the beginning of the 4ih Century A. D. Kalyana- vijayaji takes the view that it might have originated before 355 A. D. The followers of this sect gave up the idea of residing in vihāras or rest-houses and started residing in temples with the growth of laxity in behaviour. Their number increased in course of time. They maintain that it is proper for the ascetics to reside in temples during the present times. Haribhadrasūri has criticised this practice and has protested against their use of scents, flowers and fruits, taking food twice or thrice, taking bath using oils, purchase children to make them disciples, resort to practice of mantras and tantras and prevent people going to ascetics who behave in accordance with the scriptures.^[11] They have been subjected to criticism by Jinavallabha, Jinadatta and other later ascetics. In about 745 A. D. or so, the king of Anahilapura by name Chāvaḍa issued an order at the instance of Sīlaguṇasūri prohibiting the entry into town of ascetics other than Caitya-vāsis. This order was got changed in about 1013 A. D. after Jineśvarsūri and Buddhisāgara-sūri defeated the ascetics of this school in the Darbar of king Dunabhadeva in the discussions on the sanction of the Sacred Books for the different schools. Thereafter, the Caityavāsis decreased in strength, and those who style themselves as "Yati" or "Śripūjya" amongst the Śvetāmbaras belong to that School. Those who style themselves as "Saṃvegi" are the followers of forest, dwelling ascetics.

Sthānakavāsi

This sect was founded by Lomkāshāhā who was born in about 1415 A.D. in a village by name Arahatawada of the former Sirohi State, now in Gujarat. He was born in an Oswal family. At the age of twenty five, he went to Ahraedabad where Mohamed Shah was ruling. He became acquainted with Lomkashaha during certain transactions of sale of diamond. Mohmad Shah became very pleased with Lomkashaha due to skill shown by him and appointed him as the custodian of the iron safe where he had kept all his ornaments. When Mohmed Shah died due to poisoning, he became very unhappy and left his service. He was employed by a Muni by name Jñānaśri, being pleased with his handwriting, to copy the scriptures. He copied a number of scriptures and while doing so, he used to keep one copy for himself. In course of time, he found that the type of idol-worship which was then in vogue had not the sanction scriptures. So he undertook to reform the Jaina religion and those who crowded at Ahmedabad to hear his preachings were greatly influenced by him and requested him to accept them as his followers, Lomkashaha declined on the ground that he was still a house-holder. Jñānaśri Muni initiated him into asceticism and hence was born the Lomkā-gaccha. There is however another version that Lomkashaha left the service of the Shah when he was overcome with pain and pity on seeing a Muslim engaged in hunting.^[12] The followers of this school of thought came to be known as Ḍhunḍhiyas, also called Sthānakavāsis because they carry on their religious duties in Sthānaks which are like prayer halls. The followers of the school are largely to be found in Gujarat, Marwar, Kathewar etc. They regard themselves as part the Śvetāmbara- sect.

There are however differences between the Sthānakavāsis and the Śvetāmbaras in the observance of religious practices. The Sthānakavāsis do not build temples, do not believe in the worship of idols and do not have faith in places of pilgrimage. They tie a white piece of cloth to their mouth. - Like Lomkashaha, they admit the authenticity of only 31 of the scriptures. In about the 18th century Satyavijaya Muni advised the Śvetāmbaras to wear yellow clothes to distinguish them from the Sthānakavāsis and that practice is still in vogue to this day.

This sub-sect was established in Marwar by one Āchārya Bhikshu or Rhikamaṛṣi. He was born in about 1860 A. D. in Kantalia, then in Jodhapur State but now in Rajasthan, and was initiated as a monk in 1885 A. D. (Samva 1803). He founded this sect on the plea that though Ahimsā. was foundation of religion we were resorting to Himsā in our daily affairs and that we were practising irreligion in place of religion. The head of the Munis is respected by all the members of the Sangha who carry out his directions in their daily life. They have to salute him every day according to usual practice. Though there are followers of this sect in Calcutta and other towns, they are to be found in big numbers in the Western part of India.

Besides the Digambaras and Śvetāmbaras, there was an ancient Sangha called the Yāpanīya Sangha; it was also called the Gaupya Sangha. This tradition seems to have been founded by a Śvetāmbara monk by name Śrīkalaśa in about the year 148 A. D. Since this was about 70 years after the division of the community into two sects as noted already, the new creed seems to be a compromise of the traditions of both. This seems to have taken birth somewhere in North Karnataka. A large number of allusions to the Yāpanīya found in the epigraphs of the Kannada country as contrasted with their almost total absence in other regions show that the Yāpanīya were rather exclusively, a product of Karnataka Jainism and that they grew from strength to strength and developed several monastic orders of their own, encouraged by the ruling class and supported by the sections of the populace in many parts of Karnataka from fifth century to the fourteenth century A. D.

Two strongholds of the Yāpanīya monks have been in the Saundatti Taluka of the Belgaum District, one at Hosur and the other at Manoli,^[13]

This creed seems to have developed a very liberal outlook. The founders adopted a reformist attitude, though they adhered to some of the important traits common to Digambaras and Śvetāmbaras. While their monks were naked, they moved with a bunch of peacock-feathers and took their food in their hands. They worshipped nude idols and blessed the saluting devotees; 'May true religion thrive' (Satdharma-vṛddhirastu). They accepted the Śvetāmbara belief that women can also attain salvation and that Kevalins could accept food from them. Grammarian Sakatāyana also known as Palyakīrti belonged to this tradition. The works composed by him were read by the followers. They accepted some of the Sacred Books based on the Śvetāmbara traditions.

The Yāpanīyas seem to have been very liberal. They accepted that the followers of other doctrines including even house-holders can attain salvation. These generous persuasive practices secured warm welcome to the monks wherever they went. The same sense of accommodation and capacity for adaptability must have been responsible for the popularisation of the Yaks! cult and also for the ceremonial and ritualistic innovations in the worship of gods by the Jaina priests in South India.^[14] The Yāpanīyas and their views met with an opposition from the conservative sections of the community. Their popularity was mainly due to flexibility in religious precepts, free movement among the masses, grant of minor concessions to other creeds, introduction of Yaksa and Yakṣinī cult, establishment of religious institutions owing to the generous grants from the rulers and the public, and encourage­ment to women to enter the monastic order.

It is difficult to say when the new school of thought disappeared, inspite of the popularity of its doctrines and influence of its monks and nuns on public life. It seems to have survived till the end of the 15th Century A. D. as evidenced by inscriptions mentioning the death of two saints by name Dharmakīrti and Nāgacandra in Vikrama Samvat 1451, found at Kagwad in Belgaum District.

Mention is made in some books about the tradition of Ardhaphālaka, particularly by Śrī Ramanandi Acarya in his 'Life of Bahubali' Ratnanandi has stated that the monks of this sect used to cover their nakedness by a piece of cloth. It can therefore be inferred that this sect was in vogue just before the Śvetāmbara sect fully developed into a division of the Jaina community.

Whatever may be the number of divisions, all schools are unanimous in recognising the Tirthankaras and the principles preached by them. The differences are superficial in that they pertain more to form than to the substance of theology, ethics and metaphysics of the Jaina religion.