Prof. Dr. Lawrence A. Babb
The ascetic life is based on five "great vows" (mahavrat s) to which initiates commit themselves as part of the initiation (diksa) process.[1] The vows are the same for male and female ascetics. The vows are mostly negative - that is, they are vows not to do a given thing - and apply to three modes and at three levels of action. The actions in question must not be done with mind (man), speech (vacan), or body (sarir).Moreover, monks must vow not to do them (karna),not to cause them to be done (karvana),nor to admire their being done (anumodan karna).
The first vow, and in many ways the most important, is that of abimsa, which is the vow to harm no living thing. Jain laity are also required to avoid harming life forms, but the ascetic's vow is more inclusive, extending even to one-sensed beings. Many of the most conspicuous features of ascetic life are shaped by this requirement. Ascetics drink only boiled water so as to avoid harming small forms of life that would otherwise be present. Their food must be carefully inspected to be sure that it is free of small creatures. They must avoid walking on ground where there might be growing things, and they do not bathe so as not to harm minute forms of water-borne life. An ascetic carries a small broom (ogha) with which to brush aside small forms of life before sitting or lying. He or she also carries (and in the case of Sthanakvasis and Terapanthis permanently wears) a mouth-cloth (muhpatti) with which to protect small forms of life in the air from one's hot breath.[2] They may not use fire. They may not fan themselves lest harm come to airborne life. Although they are permitted to sing (and do so during rituals), they are not permitted to clap or count rhythm on their knees because of the potential lethality of the percussions. They may not use any artificial means of conveyance. This list of prohibitions could be greatly extended.
The vow of abimsa is the basis of the four-month rainy season retreat called the caturmas (or comasu),which begins at the very end of the lunar month of Sravan (July-August). One of the most important requirements of the ascetic life is movement; ideally, ascetics, traveling in groups of at least two, should never spend more than a few days at a given place. During the four rainy season months, however, ascetics must establish semipermanent residence in one place, the basic idea being that travel would endanger the many growing things that flourish on the ground during the rains. The practice plays an important role in reinforcing the ties between laity and ascetics. Because resident ascetics give daily sermons and exercise a more than ordinary influence on the community, the rainy season retreat is a season of enhanced piety among lay Jains. Local communities are eager to invite particularly distinguished or charismatic ascetics to spend their rainy season retreats among them, and arrangements are often made years in advance.
The period of the rainy season retreat is the most important of the Jain ceremonial year. During this period there are two ascetically-oriented annual observances. One is the eight-day period of Paryusan, the most solemn occasion of the Jain year.[3] Lasting for eight days, it is an occasion for extensive sermonizing by ascetics, and for fasting and the performance of the confessional rite of pratikraman by laypersons. The high point of Paryusan is the public recitation of the Kalpasutra (see Vinaya Sagar 1984) by ascetics, and the high point of the recitation is a dramatization of the fourteen dreams seen by Mahaivir's mother at the time of his conception (as described in this text).[4] Also occurring during the retreat period is a fast, not observed by many, known as naypad oli. It centers on nine days of fasting coordinated with the worship of the nine positions of the siddhcakra figure.
The second vow is satya, to tell the truth. The third is asteya, not to take what is not freely given. The fourth, brahmacarya, is a vow of complete celibacy. An important implication of the vow of celibacy is that there should be no physical contact between an ascetic and a member of the opposite sex. This requirement extends even to animals of the opposite sex. Indirect contact is also barred; an ascetic should not touch an object that is being touched by a member of the opposite sex. Thus, if a man wishes to give, say, a book to a nun, he must first place it on a neutral surface, after which she will pick it up.
The fifth and final vow, aparigraha, is that of propertylessness. The importance of this vow in regulating ascetic behavior is exceeded only by the vow of ahimsa. This vow is the basis of the peripatetic ascetic life; constant movement ensures that there can be no attachment to a particular place. Ascetics may own nothing. They do, however, carry some items. Svetambar ascetics wear clothing, and they also carry certain paraphernalia, such as their staffs, brooms, mouth-cloths, the special ritual devices used while preaching (sthapanacarya), the receptacles they use for collecting food, and personally needed items like eyeglasses. They may not, under any circumstances, handle money. Some ascetics, however, in effect control quite large sums because of their influence on wealthy laity. Ascetics can even be involved in property transactions while nonetheless adhering to the letter of nonpossession. On one occasion in Jaipur I saw an ascetic "purchase" some carved religious objects intended for display in a museum this ascetic was promoting. Money actually changed hands, but it was not touched by either of the ascetics who were present. Instead it was counted out and given to the seller by a "servant" who accompanies these monks on their travels carrying money and other items.
The vow of nonpossession has extremely important implications for the ritual culture of the Svetambar Jains. Ascetics cannot perform worship that involves physical offerings, although they can engage in mental forms of worship. This is because, having taken the vow of nonpossession, they have nothing to offer. In major rites of worship such as Parsvanath's five-kalyanak-puja, when ascetics are present they frequently sing the Sanskrit verse coming before the offering formula, but they cannot repeat the offering formula itself, which is sung by a lay worshiper. Their singing of the verse is a concession to their supposed knowledge of Sanskrit, but the offering formula is off limits because of their inability to make offerings.[5]
For a far more extensive discussion of mendicant discipline, see Dundas 1992: Ch. 6. On the life routines of Svetambar Murtipujak Jains, see Cort 1989: 308-11.
A nun was once at great pains to point out to me that this practice should not be confused with the wearing of mouth-cloths by laypersons while performing puja. The reason for the latter practice is to avoid breathing impurities on the image. I do not know how widespread this distinction is.
For detailed descriptions, see Banks (1992: 177-84); Cort (1989: 157-85); Folkert (1993: 189-211); Laidlaw (1995: Ch. 12).
I have heard the view that ascetics cannot perform worship because of their bathlessness. However, although it is true that bathing is required for those who actually touch the images, ascetics are also barred from performing what is called agra puja (see Chapter Two), which involves making offerings without having actual contact with the image.
