Ruth Satinsky
International Journal of Jaina Studies
(Online) Vol. 11, No. 1 (2015) 1-24
Abstract
Willibald Kirfel (1920/1990), in his major study of Indian cosmology, Die Kosmographie der Inder nach den Quellen dargestellt, compares the Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jaina cosmological systems, and concludes that the early Brahmanical cosmology forms the basis of the later cosmology found in the epics and Purāṇas, and that of the Buddhist and Jaina systems, as well. Contrary to Kirfel, this paper will present some provisional ideas which suggest that the concept of Mount Meru entered Brahmanical literature under the influence of the culture out of which Jainism and Buddhism arose, the culture of Greater Magadha. This hypothesis is based on three observations: 1) the concept of Mount Meru ("the golden mountain at the center of the earth and the universe, around which the heavenly bodies revolve") is prominent in the Jaina and Buddhist canons, but strikingly absent from Brahmanical literature prior to the Mahābhārata; 2) its late introduction into Brahmanical literature marks the shift from Vedic to epic and Purāṇic cosmology at a time when Brahmanical contacts with Buddhism, Jainism, and their region of origin, Greater Magadha, were possible and presumably established; and 3) a special group of numbers, "the number eighty-four and its multiples," is also prominent in the Jaina and Buddhist canons, and in Ājīvikism, but likewise absent from Brahmanical literature prior to the Mahābhārata. The lifespans of Ṛṣabha, Bharata, Śreyāṃsa, and Ara, and the height of Mount Meru are linked to this special group of numbers, and will serve, amongst others, as examples.
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What Can The Lifespans Of Ṛṣabha, Bharata, Śreyāṃsa, And Ara Tell Us About The History Of The Concept Of Mount Meru?
1. Introduction
Willibald Kirfel (1920/1990), in his major study on Indian cosmology, Die Kosmographie der Inder nach den Quellen dargestellt, compares the brahmanical, buddhist, and jaina cosmological systems, and gives an account of Mount Meru's characteristics in all three systems. He concludes that the early brahmanical cosmology forms the basis of the later cosmology found in the epics and purāṇas,[1] and that of the buddhist and jaina systems, as well.[2] Suzuko Ohira (1994: 22, §69) also adheres to Kirfel's point of view, and claims in her study of the Viyāhapannatti (= Bhagavatīsūtra): "[...] both Jainas and Buddhists built their own cosmographical features after the models of the Hindus."[3]
Contrary to Kirfel's hypothesis, this paper will present some provisional ideas that suggest that the concept of Mount Meru entered brahmanical literature under the influence of the culture out of which Jainism and Buddhism arose, the culture of Greater Magadha.[4] Thus, the introduction of the concept of Mount Meru into brahmanical literature in the Mahābhārata[5] might, I propose, be the result of a different historical reality than that which Kirfel perceives. That is to say, one that gives rise to a syncretic form of brahmanical cosmology.[6] This hypothesis is based on the following observations:
1) The cosmological concept of Mount Meru (hereafter defined as: "the golden mountain at the centre of the earth and the universe, around which the heavenly bodies revolve") is prominent in the earliest jaina and buddhist literature, but strikingly absent from brahmanical literature prior to the Mahābhārata.[7]
2) Its late introduction into brahmanical literature marks the shift from vedic to epic and purāṇic cosmology at a time when brahmanical contacts with Buddhism, Jainism, and their region of origin, Greater Magadha, were possible and presumably established.[8]
3) "The number eighty-four and its multiples," a special group of numbers associated with cosmological phenomena and entities of importance, is prominent in the jaina and buddhist canons, and in Ājīvikism, but absent from brahmanical literature prior to the Mahābhārata.[9] The first occurrence in brahmanical literature of a number from this group with cosmological purport is found in Mahābhārata (Mbh 6.7.10)[10], which states that Mount Meru rises 84,000 yojanas above the earth.
Concerning "the number eighty-four and its multiples," it should be noted that my hypothesis does not rely upon research into the symbolism of these numbers. For, although these numbers are very prominent, their significance is nowhere explained. Thus, regardless of any symbolic meaning they may have possibly (but not necessarily) had for the various religious traditions in the early historical period, there is evidence for these numbers associated with cosmological phenomena or entities in the jaina and buddhist canons, and in Ājīvikism, and none for them in brahmanical literature prior to the Mahābhārata.[11] This, I believe, is a sufficient basis upon which to question their historical implications.[12] Consider the examples which follow.
2. The Number Eighty-Four and its Multiples in the Jaina and Buddhist Canons[13]
2.1 The lifespans of Ṛṣabha, Bharata, Śreyāṃsa and Ara
The Pajjosavaṇākappa, a Śvetāmbara canonical text, states that Ṛṣabha's earthly lifespan was 8,400,000 puvva.[14]
The Jambuddīvapannatti [15], the sixth upaṅga of the Śvetāmbara canon, also attests to 8,400,000 puvva for Ṛṣabha's lifespan (JDP1 2.40; JDP2 2.88)[16] and the same number of puvva for Bharata's lifespan (JDP1 3.87.2; JDP2 3.225).[17]
The Viyāhapannatti, the fifth aṅga of the Śvetāmbara canon, states, more generally, that the lifespans of naradevā (cakkavaṭṭtī) last a minimum of seven hundred years and a maximum of 8,400,000 puvva (Viy4 12.9.13); and those of devāhidevā (titthagara), a minimum of seventy-two years and a maximum of 8,400,000 puvva (Viy4 12.9.15)[18].
The Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacaritra, a non-canonical Śvetāmbara universal history,[19] also confirms Ṛṣabha's and Bharata's lifespans of 8,400,000 puvva, and mentions Śreyāṃsa's lifespan of 8,400,000 years, and Ara's of 84,000 years.[20]
2.2 Calculable (Gaṇiya) Time Measures
In the Śvetāmbara and Digambara traditions, "the number eighty-four and its multiples" are omnipresent in the category of "calculable" (gaṇiya) time measures. Their function is to designate calculable time periods of great magnitude within the osappiṇī ("down-moving") and ussappiṇī ("up-moving") two half-motions of jaina cosmic time.[21] Hence, the use of these numbers to designate the extraordinarily long earthly lifespans of Ṛṣabha, Bharata, Śreyāṃsa, and Ara.[22]
Textual paradigms for the Śvetāmbara gaṇiya time measures are found in the Viyāhapannatti (Viy3 6.7.114) and Jambuddīvapannatti (JDP1 2.24; JDP2 2.4.4); and those of the Digambara gaṇiya time measures in the Tiloyapannatti (TP 4.282 ff.), Trilokasāra and Trilokadīpikā.[23] The Viyāhapannatti and Jambuddīvapannatti cite the gaṇiya time measures from the smallest unit of time (one samaya) up to the largest "calculable" unit (one sīsapahelika). From the time unit of eighty-four vāsasayasahassa upwards, "the number eighty-four and its multiples" are omnipresent in this system of time measures.
According to Viy3 6.7.1141:
| 8,400,000 years | = 1 puvvaṃge |
| 8,400,000 puvvaṃgā | = 1 puvve (= 70,560,000,000,000years1) |
| 8,400,000 puvvā | = 1 tuḍiaṃge |
| 8,400,000 tuḍiaṃge | = 1 tuḍie |
| 8,400,000 tuḍie | = 1 aḍaḍaṃge |
| 8,400,000 aḍaḍaṃge | = 1 aḍa |
| 8,400,000 aḍā | = 1 avavaṃge |
| 8,400,000 avavaṃge | = 1 avave |
| 8,400,000 avave | = 1 huhuaṃge |
| 8,400,000 huhuaṃge | = 1 huhue |
| 8,400,000 huhue | = 1 uppalaṃge |
| 8,400,000 uppalaṃge | = 1 uppale |
| 8,400,000 uppale | = 1 paumaṃge |
| 8,400,000 paumaṃge | = 1 paume |
| 8,400,000 paume | = 1 ṇaliṇaṃge |
| 8,400,000 ṇaliṇaṃge | = 1 ṇaliṇe |
| 8,400,000 ṇaliṇe | = 1 atthaṇiuraṃge |
| 8,400,000 atthaṇiuraṃge | = 1 atthaṇiure |
| 8,400,000 atthaṇiure | = 1 auaṃge |
| 8,400,000 auaṃge | = 1aue |
| 8,400,000 auā | = 1 pauaṃge |
| 8,400,000 pauaṃge | = 1 paue |
| 8,400,000 paue | = 1 ṇauaṃge |
| 8,400,000 ṇauaṃge | = 1 ṇaue |
| 8,400,000 ṇaue | = 1 cūliaṃge |
| 8,400,000 cūliaṃge | = 1 cūliā |
| 8,400,000 cūlie | = 1 sīsapaheliaṃge |
| 8,400,000 sīsapaheliaṃge | = 1 sīsapaheliyā |
2.3 The Number 84,000 and the Height of Mount Meru
The Digambara Tiloyapannatti[24] states that there are five Merus (here also called Mandara) in all. One in the centre of Jambūdīva (Jambūdvīpa): 99,000 yojanas above the earth, and 1,000 yojanas below it;[25] two on the island-continent of Dhādaīsaṇḍa (Dhātakīkhaṇḍa): 84,000 yojanas above the earth, and 1,000 yojanas below it, respectively;[26] and two are on the half island-continent of Pokkhara (Puṣkarārdha): 84,000 yojanas above the earth, and 1000 yojanas below it, respectively.[27] The Trilokasāra[28] provides the same information as the Tiloyapannatti.[29]
In the Pāli canon, the Aṅguttara Nikāya states that Sineru (Meru) is 84,000 yojanas high and wide, and that it descends 84,000 yojanas beneath the sea.[30]
There are other significant occurrences of the number 84,000 in buddhist literature. For example, there are the 84,000 dharmaskandhas of the Buddha[31] - i.e., portions of the teaching relating to laws (dharmaskandhavaśena caturaśītisahasravidham)[32] - and the 84,000 stūpas containing the relics of Śākyamuni[33] which were distributed by Aśoka out of the original eight portions.
In the Bhīṣmaparvan of the Mahābhārata (Mbh 6.7.10),[34] as well as in the purāṇas,[35] it is stated that Meru rises 84,000 yojanas above the earth and descends 16,000 yojanas below it. The height of Mount Meru in the Mahābhārata is the first occurrence in brahmanical literature of a number with cosmological significance from the group of "the number eightyfour and its multiples."[36]
2.4 The Number 8,400,000 for Jainas and Ājīvikas
The Viyāhapannatti (Viy4 13.1.4; 13.1.10-16) lists the seven regions of the Lower World (ahe-loga) and gives the number of abodes of hell (niray'-āvāsa) for each respective region. The total number of places of hell is 8,400,000.[37]
Also in the Viyāhapannatti (Viy1 15.101; Viy2 15.68), the number 8,400,000 refers to the number of mahākappas through which a person must pass before he can reach salvation according to the Ājīvikas.[38] The same concept, attributed to the teachings of Makkhali Gosāla, is expressed in the Sāmmannaphala Sutta of the buddhist Dīgha Nikāya (DN 1 p. 54).[39]
Padmanabh S. Jaini (1980: 228) also draws attention to the fact that the number 8,400,000 has been retained in [the jaina] system to the present-day, although in a significantly altered context.[40] This number is for Jainas the sum total of conceivable birthsituations (yoni) (i.e., the four destinies divided into all their sub-categories, sub-subcategories, etc.) in which souls may find themselves, again and again, as they circle through saṃsāra.[41]
3. The Concept of Mount Meru in the Jaina and Buddhist Canons
The Jambuddīvapannatti (JDP1 4.132)[42] describes Mount Meru (here called Mandara[43]) as being situated in the very middle of Jambuddīva, the innermost circular continent at the centre of the earth and the universe; and (JDP1 7.159 ff.) [44] as the mountain around which the suns, moons, constellations, and planets revolve. The Sūrapannatti (Sūrap 19.22.10-11; 19.23)[45] and the Tiloyapannatti (TP 4.435)[46] also attest to the sun and the moon revolving around Meru; and the Pajjosavaṇākappa (KS2-3 39)[47] mentions the concept in one of the fourteen dreams of Triśalā, the soon-to-be mother of Mahāvīra.[48] However, the concept of a central mountain around which the heavenly bodies revolve is absent from vedic literature, and only found for the first time in brahmanical literature in the Mahābhārata.[49]
The Pāli canon also attests to Mount Meru, but calls it Sineru or Neru.[50] There is a Sineru Sutta in the Saṃyutta Nikāya, [51] and a Neru Jātaka. [52]
In buddhist literature, Meru is associated with two systems. The first is the cakkavāla, or "single world" system,[53] which describes the cosmos as a flat disc with heavens and meditation realms above, and hells below. There are seven concentric golden mountain ranges with Mount Meru at the centre, and the cakkavāla, a circular mountain range made of iron, lies at the outermost perimeter of the disc. The second is the system known as "sāhasra cosmology," which has a thousand universes each with its own Meru, seven concentric rings of mountains, a sun, and a moon.[54] In both systems the wind, moon, sun, and stars revolve around Meru.
4. Conclusion
The examples presented here not exhaustive, but attest, nonetheless, to the prominence of "the number eighty-four and its multiples" and the concept of Mount Meru in the earliest jaina and buddhist literature; as well as the concept of 8,400,000 great kalpas in Ājīvikism.
Although the earliest jaina texts which have come down to us are relatively late, and their dating problematic, if the examples in the jaina canon are considered together with the other numerous examples in the Pāli canon, and those in Ājīvikism, this strongly suggests that the concept of Mount Meru entered brahmanical literature under the influence of the culture of Greater Magadha.
It is possible that the concept of Mount Meru was introduced into brahmanical literature as part of the overall response to the crisis that Brahmanism faced under the Nandas and Mauryas. At that time, Buddhism, Jainism, and other heterodox sects were favoured by rulers over Brahmanism - a situation which threatened Brahmanism's survival.[55] Brahmanism responded by developing various strategies to regain its former prominence in society. The reworking of vedic cosmology, and the introduction of new cosmological concepts from the cultural milieu of Greater Magadha, may have been one of those strategies.
For example, in vedic literature, the heavenly Sarasvatī falls down to earth on the world tree at Prakṣa Prāsravaṇa[56], but in the Mahābhārata (Mbh 6.7.27)[57], it is the heavenly Gaṅgā that falls down to earth on the summit of Mount Meru. By reworking and/or combining certain traditional vedic cosmological concepts, with those that were popular and prominent in the cultural milieu of Greater Magadha, one might speculate that the redactors of the Mahābhārata were better armed, ideologically, to persuade rulers of their superiority as ritual specialists. [58] The result, as we know, was that the Brahmins eventually succeeded in making themselves indispensable to rulers again, and not only as ritual specialists, but also as counselors to rulers for statecraft and governing, interpreters of divine signs and omens, pronouncers of curses and blessings, etc. (Bronkhorst, 2007: 271-73; 2008: 6 ff.; 2011: 30- 31). From the Mahābhārata onwards, the concept of Mount Meru became the pivot of brahmanical cosmology, and remained henceforth unchanged and prominent in brahmanical literature and sacred geography to the present day.
Appendix A: The Absence of the Concept of the Number Eighty-Four and its Multiples in Vedic Literature
In contrast to the frequent occurrences of "the number eighty-four and its multiples" in jaina and buddhist literature, the few examples to be found in vedic literature are not associated with concepts of cosmological significance. According to the Vedic Word-Concordance, in Kāṭhaka Saṃhitā (5.2.5) the number eighty-four occurs in a long list of numbers (4, 8, 12, 16, etc., up to 100). In the Ṛgveda Prātiśākhya (sūtra 949) the number also appears in a list of numbers (80, 84, 88, 92, etc., up to 104). In the Maitri or Maitrāyaṇīya Upaniṣad (3.3) the number eighty-four occurs in the phrase: "The totality of beings which, determined by the three guṇas, evolve from eighty-four lacs of wombs, constitute the variety of its forms." Since this Upaniṣad is late, and this fits perfectly with the uses of eighty-four in Ājīvikism and Jainism, this is a clear case of borrowing. Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa (2.59) mentions the number eighty-four as being the total number of syllables (akṣaras) when the gāyatrī (24) and uṣṇih (28) and anuṣṭubh (32) are added together; when the paṅkti (40) and triṣṭubh (44) are added together; and when the bṛhatī (36) and jagatī (48) are added together. Finally, the occurrence of the number eighty-four in Atharvaveda Pariśiṣṭa (52.2.2) is too late to be of significance, nor is its utilisation in this phrase pertinent to this study.
Thus, the number eighty-four or its multiples, associated with phenomenon or entities of cosmological significance, appear very late in brahmanical literature, i.e., not before the Mahābhārata. This fact provisionally excludes the possibility that the cosmological concept of this group of numbers originated in the brahmanical context.
Appendix B: The Absence of the Concept of Mount Meru in Vedic Literature[59]
The Ṛgveda mentions the mountains of Himavat (10.121.4)[60] and Mūjavat (10.34.1). The later Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas mention Trikakud (Atharvaveda 4.9.8; Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 3.1.3.12) or Trikakubh (Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā 3.6.3; Kāṭhaka Saṃhitā 23.1; Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā 25.4; Pancaviṃśa Brāhmaṇa 22.14). The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa (1.8.1.8) mentions manor avasarpaṇam, the mountain to which Manu's vessel is taken by the fish to save him from being washed away by the flood. The Taittirīya Āraṇyaka mentions Mahāmeru (1.7.1 3),[61] Kraunca (1.31.2), and Maināka (1.31.2). However, none of these texts introduce the concept of a mountain at the centre of the world called Mount Meru, or called by any other name, and nor do they mention a mountain around which the heavenly bodies revolve.
Appendix C: Mahābhārata (Mbh) 6.7.819, 27
parimaṇḍalas tayor madhye meruḥ kanakaparvataḥ || Mbh 6.7.8cd ||
ādityataruṇābhāso vidhūma iva pāvakaḥ ǀ
yojanānāṃ sahasrāṇi ṣoḍaśādhaḥ kila smṛtaḥ || 9 ||
ucchaiś ca caturāśītir yojanānāṃ mahīpate ǀ
ūrdhvam antaś ca tiryak ca lokān āvṛtya tiṣṭhati || 10 ||
tasya pārśve tv ime dvīpāś catvāraḥ saṃsthitāḥ prabho ǀ
bhadrāśvaḥ ketumālaśca jambūdvīpaś ca bhārata ǀ
uttarāś caiva kuravaḥ kṛtapuṇyapratiśrayāḥ || 11 ||
vihagaḥ sumukho yatra suparṇasyātmajaḥ kila ǀ
sa vai vicintayāmāsa sauvarṇān prekṣya vāyasān || 12 ||
merur uttamamadhyānām adhamānāṃ ca pakṣiṇām ǀ
aviśeṣakaro yasmāt tasmād enaṃ tyajāmy aham || 13 ||
tam ādityo 'nuparyeti satataṃ jyotiṣāṃ patiḥ ǀ
candramāś ca sanakṣatro vāyuś caiva pradakṣiṇam || 14 ||
sa parvato mahārāja divyapuṣpaphalānvitaḥ ǀ
bhavanair āvṛtaḥ sarvair jāmbūnadamayaiḥ śubhaiḥ || 15 ||
tatra devagaṇā rājan gandharvāsurarākṣasāḥ ǀ
apsarogaṇasaṃyuktāḥ śaile krīḍanti nityaśaḥ || 16 ||
tatra brahmā ca rudraś ca śakraś cāpi sureśvaraḥ ǀ
sametya vividhair yajnair yajante 'nekadakṣiṇaiḥ || 17 ||
tumburur nāradaś caiva viśvāvasur hahā huhūḥ ǀ
abhigamyāmaraśreṣṭhāḥ stavaistunvanti cābhibho || 18 ||
saptarṣayo mahātmānaḥ kaśyapaś ca prajāpatiḥ ǀ
tatra gacchanti bhadraṃ te sadā parvaṇi parvaṇi || 19 ||...
puṇyā puṇyatamair juṣṭā gaṅgā bhāgīrathī śubhā ǀ
pataty ajaśravegena hrade cāndramase śubhe ǀ 27ad ǀ
Appendix D: Mahābhārata (Mbh) 3.102.2-7:
lomaśa uvāca ǀ
adrirājaṃ mahāśailaṃ maruṃ kanakaparvatam ǀ
udayāstamaye bhānuḥ pradakṣiṇam avartata || Mbh 3.102.2 ||
taṃ tu dṛṣṭvā tathā vindhyaḥ śailaḥ sūryam athābravīt ǀ
yathā hi merur bhavatā nityaśaḥ parigamyate ǀ
pradakṣiṇaṃ ca kriyate mām evaṃ kuru bhāskara || 3 ||
evam uktas tataḥ sūryaḥ śailendraṃ pratyabhāṣata ǀ
nāham ātmecchayā śaila karomy enaṃ pradakṣiṇam ǀ
eṣa mārgaḥ pradiṣṭo me yenedaṃ nirmitaṃ jagat || 4 ||
evam uktas tataḥ krodhāt pravṛddhaḥ sahasācalaḥ ǀ
sūryācandramasor mārgaṃ roddhum icchan paraṃtapa || 5 ||
tato devāḥ sahitāḥ sarva eva; sendrāḥ samāgamya mahādrirājam ǀ
nivārayām āsur upāyatas taṃ; na ca sma teṣāṃ vacanaṃ cakāra || 6 ||
athābhijagmur munim Āśramasthaṃ; tapasvinaṃ dharmabhṛtāṃ
variṣṭham/agastyam atyadbhutavīryadīptaṃ; taṃ cārtham ūcuḥ sahitāḥ surās te ||
Appendix E: Mahābhārata (Mbh) 3.160.24-29:
etaṁ jyotīṁṣi sarvāṇi prakarṣan bhagavān api ǀ
kurute vitamaskarmā ādityo 'bhipradakṣiṇam || Mbh 3.160.24 ||
astaṁ prāpya tataḥ saṁdhyām atikramya divākaraḥ ǀ
udīcīṁ bhajate kāṣṭhāṁ diśam eṣa vibhāvasuḥ || 25 ||
sa merum anuvr̥ttaḥ san punar gacchati pāṇḍava ǀ
prāṅmukhaḥ savitā devaḥ sarvabhūtahite rataḥ || 26 ||
sa māsaṁ vibhajan kālaṁ bahudhā parvasaṁdhiṣu ǀ
tathaiva bhagavān somo nakṣatraiḥ saha gacchati || 27 ||
evam eṣa parikramya mahāmerum atandritaḥ ǀ
bhāvayan sarvabhūtāni punar gacchati mandaram || 28 ||
tathā tamisrahā devo mayūkhair bhāvayan jagat ǀ
mārgam etad asaṁbādham ādityaḥ parivartate || 29 ||
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© The Editor. International Journal of Jaina Studies (Online) 2015
"Die ältere Epoche der brāhmaṇischen Kosmographie ist aber nicht nur für die jüngere Voraussetzung und Grundlage, sondern auch für die Systeme der Buddhisten und Jaina die erst in späterer Zeit entstanden und auf den gegebenen Vorstellungen weiterbauen mussten" (Kirfel 1920/1990: 2).
Apart from Willibald Kirfel's general work on Indian cosmology, scholarly literature has focused primarily on the symbolism of Mount Meru. See, e.g., Eliade, 1947/1969 and 1949/2004; von Heine-Geldern, 1930 and 1942; Mus, 1935/1990; Bosch, 1960; Mabbett, 1983; Granoff 1997/2009. These studies have presented Mount Meru variously as the "cosmic axis," "home of the gods," or "heaven on earth." W. Randolf Kloetzli (1985) has argued that the shape of Mount Meru in the Viṣṇu Purāṇa is defined by the logic of stereographic projection; and (2010), that there may be a link between the names of the purāṇic Mount Meru and the "Climate of Meroë," one of the "Seven Ptolemaic Climates." Natalia R. Lidova (forthcoming) has studied the relationship between "The Cosmography of Mount Meru and Early Pūjā Cult." See also Sircar 1966/1967: 33ff. for his study of conceptual interactions between brahmanical, buddhist and jaina cosmologies.
"The cosmographical framework of the Jainas must have begun to be set down upon entering the third canonical stage [which Ohira proposes dating between 1st c. B.C. /1st c. A.D. 3rd c. A.D], and an inquiry into astronomical science was indispensable for this. As comparative studies of the ancient Indian cosmographies reveal [Ohira, fn 12: 'For instance, cf. Kirfel: Die Kosmographie der Inder.'], both Jainas and the Buddhists built their own cosmographical features after the model of the Hindus. The Jainas started to collect the then astronomical theories and data from the Jyotiṣa Vedāṅga pertaining to the orbit, motion, position of the sun, and so on, and the waning and waxing of the moon, the conjunctures of the nakṣatras, etc., etc., which are recorded and refuted in the Sūrya-Candra p. in order to prove that the relevant Jaina positions were more advanced than others. This proves that the Jainas had already mastered the then available astronomical sciences and came out with their own views and theories by the beginning of the 3rd century A. D. and came out with their own views and theories by the beginning of the 3rd century A.D" (Ohira, 1994: 22, § 69).
The term "Greater Magadha" has been used by Johannes Bronkhorst 2007: 3ff. to refer to the region east of the confluence of the Gaṅgā and Yamunā (present-day Uttar Pradesh and Bihar) where the spiritual traditions of Buddhism, Jainism, Ājīvikism and other heterodox sects originated and manifested their own distinct spiritual ideologies, such as the belief in karmic retribution and rebirth. According to Bronkhorst, the brahmanization of this region did not begin to occur until sometime around 185 BCE.
See below: Mbh 6.7.8-19, 27 (Appendix C); Mbh 3.102.2-7 (Appendix D); Mbh 3.160.25-28 (Appendix E).
In addition to the concept of Mount Meru, there are other new cosmological concepts, and cosmographical features, which enter brahmanical literature for the first time in the Mahābhārata. For example: the heavenly Gaṅgā; Jambūdvīpa; the alternate concentric rings of continents, mountains and oceans; a cyclic notion of time (kalpas, yugas, etc.). See González-Reimann 2002 for his study of the yuga theory in the Mahābhārata. He argues (p. 2) that the yuga theory was "a late superimposition" onto the Mahābhārata, and points out (p. 7) that "the yuga theory is conspicuously absent from vedic literature." Commenting on González-Reimann's hypothesis, Bronkhorst 2007: 71 believes that "[...] we may have to see in the cyclic vision of time an element that entered into the brahmanical tradition from the culture of Greater Magadha at a time when the core of the Mahābhārata (its first written version) was already in existence." And Parpola 2013: 30 underlines the fact that certain aspects of brahmanical cosmology, such as astral names, appear rarely in vedic literature, yet frequently in the epics and purāṇas and are traceable to non-ṛgvedic traditions from "the non-brahmanical country of Magadha."
See Bronkhorst 2007: 1ff. for a comparison between the brahmanic culture situated west of the confluence of the Gaṅgā and the Yamunā, and the culture of Greater Magadha situated to the east; and a study of their interactions between the second century BCE and the second or third century CE.
See below, Appendix A: "The Absence of the Concept of the Number Eighty-Four and its Multiples in Vedic Literature."
W. Randolf Kloetzli (personal communication, 13 December 2011) has speculated that the number 84,000 could be "derived from some formula for relating the seven planets to the twelve signs of the zodiac (7 � - 12 = 84)." John Brockington (personal communication, 8 January 2012) has proposed that the number eighty-four represents the seven days of the week multiplied by the twelve months of the year. The number seven, he says, is prominent with the Ājīvikas, and important in the Iranian tradition, where one finds the concept of the week very strong. Walther Schubring 1935/1962/2000: 28 has stated: "it should be remembered that the figure of eighty-four or either of its plurals frequently appear with the Jains and elsewhere where they only fail to give precise details for something founded on fact."
Numbers from this group associated with important cosmological phenomena or entities will be privileged here. However, it is to be noted that these numbers are also frequently associated with non-cosmological phenomena or entities in the jaina and buddhist canonical literature. This indicates to what extent these numbers were truly popular and embedded in these traditions. See, for example, KS3 213 and KS3 214 in fn 13, below.
KS3 227: teṇaṃ kāleṇaṃ teṇaṃ samaeṇaṃ Usabhe arahā Kosalie vīsaṃ [...] caurāsīiṃ puvva-saya-sāhassāiṃ savv'-āuyaṃ pālaittā [...]: KS2 227: "In that period, in that age the Arhat Rishabha the Kosalian lived [...] eight millions four hundred thousand years on the whole" (tr. Jacobi, 1884: 284f.). 8,400,000 puvva = 1 tuṭitāṅga (tuḍiaṅga) (= 8,400,0003 years). The celestial lifespans of the Tīrthaṅkaras are longer and calculated in sāgarovama. See, fn 22 below. The Pajjosavaṇākappa also associates "the number 84 and its multiples" with some non-cosmological subjects related to Ṛṣabha: KS3 213: Usabhassa ṇaṃ arahao Kosaliyassa caurāsīi gaṇā caurāsīi gaṇaharā ya hotthā. KS3 214: Usabhassa ṇaṃ arahao Kosaliyassa Usabhaseṇa - pāmokkhāo caurāsīi samaṇa sāhassīo ukkosiyā samaṇa - saṃpayā hotthā: "The Arhat Rsabha, the Kosalian, had eighty-four Ganas and eighty-four Ganadharas (213). The Arhat Rsabha, the Kosalian, had an excellent community of eighty-four thousand Sramanas with Rsabhasena at their head" (214) (tr. Jacobi, 1884: 284).
The Jambuddīvapannatti contains biographies of Ṛṣabha and Bharata, as well as important sections on cosmography and cosmology.
JDP2 3.225: tae ṇaṃ se bharahe kevalī [...] caurāsīḍaṃ puvva-saya-sahassāḍam savv 'āuyaṃ pālaittā [...].
Viy4 12.9.13: naradevāṇaṃ bhaṃte pucchā | goyamā jahanneṇaṃ satta vāsasayāiṃ ukkoseṇaṃ caurāsīiṃ puvvasayasahassāiṃ || Viy4 12.9.15: devāhidevāṇaṃ bhaṃte pucchā | goyama jahanneṇaṃ bāvattariṃ (bāsattariṃ?) vāsāiṃ ukkoseṇaṃ caurāsīiṃ puvvasayasahassāiṃ ||
The universal history developed out of the commentarial literature of the Āvassayanijjutti which describes the six obligatory actions (āvassaya) to be recited daily by ascetics. See Leumann 1934.
See TŚPC 1931-1962/2013: 220-22 for the lifespans of Ṛṣabha, Bharata, Śreyāṃsa, Ara and the other fordmakers; and Kirfel 1959b: 142f. for a table of their lifespans compiled from the universal history.
Time is conceived of as a great wheel (kālacakka), turning without beginning nor end, and divided into two half-motions, osappiṇī ("down-moving") and ussappiṇī ("up-moving"), which are then subdivided into six time periods respectively. The six osappiṇī periods are: 1) an "extremely happy" suṣumā-suṣumā period that lasts 4 x 1014 sāgarovama years; 2) a "happy"suṣumā period that lasts 3 x 1014 sāgarovama years; 3) a "more happy than unhappy" suṣumā-duḥṣamā period that lasts 2 x 1014 sāgarovama years; 4) a "more unhappy than happy"duḥṣamā-suṣumā period that lasts 1 x 1014 sāgarovama years, less 42,000 calendrical years; 5) an "unhappy" duḥṣamā period that lasts 21,000 calendrical years; and 6) a "very unhappy" duḥṣamā-duḥṣamā period that lasts 21,000 calendrical years. When the sixth period ends in destruction, the upward moving period begins with the six periods occurring in reverse order than those of the osappiṇī (JDP1 2.25). The "downmoving" (osappiṇī) or "up-moving" (ussappiṇī) motions only exist in the karmabhūmi, not in the five Videha regions of the innermost Two-and-a-Half Island continents (Aḍāīdvīpa) of the Middle World (madhyaloka).
The celestial lifespans of the fordmakers, as opposed to their earthly ones, are measured in time periods called sāgarovama. The Jambuddīvapannatti (JDP1 2.25; JDP2 2.6.2) and the Viyāhapannatti (Viy3 6.7.116) state that 1 sāgarovama = 10 koṭākoṭi of paliovama. However, Walther Schubring 1935/1969/2000: 226 claims that 1 sāgarovama = 8,400,00019; and Paul Dundas 2005: 2025 claims that 1 sāgarovama = 8,400,000 x 1019 years. Unfortunately, they do not cite the textual references for their claims, but if either Schubring or Dundas is correct, this would imply that "the number eighty-four and its multiples" are embedded within all of the calculations for the celestial lifespans of the fordmakers based on time periods measured in sāgarovama. For example, the Pajjosavaṇākappa states that Ṛṣabha lived in the celestial world before being born into his earthly existence for thirty sāgarovama (KS1 191); Pārśva for twenty sāgarovama (KS1 149); Ariṣṭanemi, for thirty-three sāgarovama (KS1 162); and Mahāvīra for twenty sāgarovama (KS1 2).23 There is also a passage in the second book of the Āyāra (ĀS 2.15.2) that attests to Mahāvīra's lifespan of twenty sāgarovama in the celestial world before he was born into his earthly existence. Although the second book of the Āyāra is considered by the commentators to be later than the first, the reference to the length of the celestial lifespan of Mahāvīra may, nonetheless, signify that "the number eighty-four and its multiples" underlie the notion of sāgarovama. The Āyāra is one of the earliest texts of the jaina canon, and contains the first extensive biography of Mahāvīra.
Kirfel 1920/1990: 208 ff. bases his study of Digambara cosmology exclusively on the Trilokasāra (Trailokyasāra) by Nemicandra, and the Trilokadīpikā (Trailokyadīpikā) by Indravāmadeva. However, I have also included the Tiloyapannatti (Trilokaprajnapti) by Yativṛṣabha because: much of the Trilokasāra seems to be based on the Tiloyapannatti; the Trilokasāra (TLS Jain: 2003) does not contain the portion on time measures; and I was unable to consult the Trilokadīpikā. See Kirfel 1920/1990: 337-39 for tables of the Śvetāmbara and Digambara gaṇiya time measures compiled from the Viyāhapannatti, Jambuddīvapannatti, Aṇuogadārā, Jīvābhigama with Malayagiri's commentary, Tattvārthasūtra by Ūmāsvāti, Trilokadīpikā and Trilokasāra. "The number eighty-four and its multiples" are equally prominent in the Digambara time measures, but there are some variations (e.g., the highest gaṇiya number in the Digambara system is 1 acalappa = 8,400,00016 x 8415.
On Jambūdīva: TP 4.2.10.1803: varise mahāvidehe bahumajjhe maṃdaro mahāselo / ("In the very middle of Mahāvideha is Mandara...") (tr. Jain and Jain, 2012: 367, modified by R. Satinsky (idem for fns 26-27)). TP 4.2.10.1804: joyaṇa-sahassa-gāḍo ṇava-ṇavadi-sahassa-metta-uccheho / ("1000 yojanas deep, and 99,000 yojanas high...") (Jain and Jain, 2012: 367).
On Dhādaīsaṇḍa: TP 4.4.2616: taddīve puvāvara-videha-vassāṇa hodi bahumajjhe / puvva-pavaṇiṇada-rūvo ekkekko maṃdaro selo //. ([On Dhādaīsaṇḍa], "in the very middle of the eastern and western Videha regions, there is a Mandara in each region.") (Jain and Jain 2012: 511). TP 4.4.2617: joyaṇa-sahassa-gāḍhāa cūlasīdi-sahassa-joyaṇucchehā / ("They [i.e., the two Mandaras attested to in TP 4.4.2616] are 1000 yojanas deep and 84,000 yojanas high.") (Jain and Jain 2012: 511).
On Pokkhara: TP 4.6.2830: doṇhaṃ isugārāṇaṃ vicchāle hoṃti doṇiṇa vijayavarā / cakkaddha-samāyārā ekkekkā tāsu merugirī 7 ||: "In each of the two Videha regions shaped like a whole in the wheel, there is one Mount Meru" (Jain & Jain 2012: 550). TP 4.6.2836: mukkā merugiriṃdaṃ kulagiri-pahudīṇaṃ dīva-tidayammi / vitthāruccheha-samo keī evaṃ parūvetiṃ ||: "The width and height of all the mountains excluding Mount Meru are similar in all three dvīpas" [i.e., Jambūdīva, Dhādaīsaṇḍa, and Pokkhara.] (Jain & Jain 2012: 551). TP 4.6.2857: dhādaīsaṇḍa-pavaṇiṇada-doṇṇaṃ meruṇa savva-vaṇṇaṇayaṃ / ettheva ya vattavvaṃ gayadaṃtaṃ bhaddasāla-kuru-rahidaṃ ||: "The descriptions of Dhādaīsaṇḍa and Pokkhara should also be understood as that of Pokkhara except for that of Mount Tusk-faced, Bhaddasāla, and Kuru" [i.e., the four Merus (two on Dhādaīsaṇḍa, and two on Pokkhara) are 84,000 yojanas high and 1000 yojanas deep respectively]) (Jain & Jain 2012: 555).
The Ṭhāṇa (Ṭhāṇ 2.3.344; 2.3.350; 4.2.337) also attests that in addition to Mandara on Jambūdvīpa, there are four other Mandaras: two on Dhātakīkhaṇḍa, and two on Puṣkarārdha, respectively. However, the text does not mention their heights. According to Schubring 1935/1962/2000: 229, the two Mandaras on Dhātakīkhaṇḍa are also attested to in the Samavāya (92a); Sthānāṅgavṛitti (167b); and Umāsvāti's Tattvārthasūtra (on 3, 11). The Jambuddīvapannatti (JDP1 4.132; 4.137) only mentions Mandara on Jambūdvīpa rising 99,000 yojanas above the earth and descending 1000 yojanas below it. Kirfel 1920/1990: 250-52 confirms that the heights of the two Mandaras on Dhātakīkhaṇḍa and the two on Puṣkarārdha are 84,000 yojanas above the earth and 1000 yojanas below it, respectively. His sources are the Jīvābhigamasūtra, Lokaprakāśa, Jambūdvīpasamāsa, Trailokyadīpikā, and Trailokyasāra for Dhātakīkhaṇḍa; and Jīvābhigamasūtra, Lokaprakāśa, Jambūdvīpasamāsa, and Trailokyadīpikā for Puṣkarārdha. For the editions of these texts, see Kirfel 1920/1990: 208f. The Sūyagaḍa (Sūy 1.6.10-11) also attests that Meru rises 99,000 yojanas above the earth and descends 1000 yojanas below it. However, my thanks to Peter Flügel (personal communication, 15 June 2014) for pointing out to me that this passage is considered to be an interpolation.
Hardy, 1958: 100: Sineru bhikkave pabbatarājā caturāsītiyojanasahassāni āyāmena caturāsītiyojanasahassāni vitthārena caturāsītiyojanasahassāni mahāsamudde ajjhogāḷho caturāsītiyojanasahassāni mahāsamuddā accuggato.
According to Lamotte 1958: 162, the number of dharmaskandhas of the Buddha is generally given as 84,000, but there are variant versions with the number 80,000.
Theragāthā 1024, as given in Lamotte 1958: 162: Dvāsītiṃ buddhato gaṇhi, dve sahassāni bhikkhuto caturāsīti sahassāni ye 'me dhammā pavattino.
According to Lamotte 1958: 162, the number of stūpas containing the relics of Śākyamuni is generally given as 84,000, but there are variant versions with the number 80,000.
See below, Appendix A: "The Absence of the Concept of the Number Eighty-Four and its Multiples in Vedic Literature."
Viy4 13.1.4; 13.1.10; 13.1.12-16: "[...] tīsaṃ nirayāvāsasayasahassā pannattā (3,000,000) | [...] paṇavīsaṃ
sayasahassā (2,500,000) | [...] pannarasa sayasahassā (1,500,000) | [...] dasa sayasahassā (1,000,000) | [...]
tiṇiṇa sayasahassā (300,000) | [...] ege paṃcūne sayasahasse (95,995) | [...] paṃca (5) | [i.e., 3,000,000 +
2,500,000 + 1,500,000 + 1,000,000 + 300,000 + 95,995 + 5 = 8,400,000 (R. Satinsky)].
Viy1 15.101; Viy2 15.68: savve te caürāsītiṃ mahākappa-saya-sahassāiṃ satta divve satta sanjūhe satta sannigabbhe satta paüṭṭa-parihāre panca kammāṇi saya-sahassāiṃ saṭṭhiṃ ca sahassāiṃ chac ca sae tinni ya kammaṃse aṇupuvveṇaṃ khavaittā tao pacchā sijjhanti bujjhanti muccanti parinivvāinti savvadukkhāṇam antaṃ kareṃsu vā karenti vā karissanti vā ||: "All those who have reached or are reaching or will reach salvation must finish in order 8,400,000 mahākappas, seven divine births, seven groups, seven sentient births, seven 'abandonments of transmigration' (paüṭṭa-parihāra), 500,000 kammas, and 60,000 and 600 and the three parts of kamma. Then, being saved, awakened, set free, and reaching nirvāṇa they have made or are making or will make an end of all sorrow" (tr. Basham 1951: 219, and modified by Bronkhorst 2007: 44).
DN 1 p. 54: "[...] cullāsīti mahā-kappuno sata-sahassāni yāni bāle ca paṇḍite ca sandhāvitvā saṃsaritvā dukkhass' antaṃ karissanti. Tattha n' atthi: "Imināhaṃ sīlena vā vatena vā tapena vā brahmacariyena vā aparipakkaṃ vā kammaṃ paripācessāmi, paripakkaṃ vā kammaṃ phussa-phussa vyanti-karissāmīti." H'evaṃ n' atthi doṇa-mite sukha-dukkhe pariyanta-kaṭe saṃsāre, n' atthi hāyana-vaḍḍhane n' atthi ukkaṃsāvakkaṃse. Seyyathā pi nāma sutta-guḷe khitte nibbeṭhiyamānam eva phaleti, evam eva bāle ca paṇḍite ca sandhāvitvā saṃsaritvā dukkhass' antaṃ karissantīti": "There are [...] 8,400,000 great kalpas, through which fool and wise alike will take their course, and make an end of sorrow. There is no question of bringing unripe karma to fruition, nor of exhausting karma already ripened, by virtuous conduct, by vows, by penance, or by chastity. That cannot be done. Saṃsāra is measured as with a bushel, with its joy and sorrow and its appointed end. It can neither be lessened nor increased, nor is there any excess of deficiency of it. Just as a ball of thread will, when thrown, unwind to its full length, so fool and wise alike will take their course, and make an end of sorrow" (tr. Bronkhorst 2007: 43, who explains that he omits additions made by Basham on the basis of Buddhaghosa's commentary). My thanks to Johannes Bronkhorst for bringing this passage to my attention (Bronkhorst, personal communication, 15 December 2011). This passage is cited by Basham 1951/1989: 14-15 n. 3; 1954/1959: 295 as being representative of Makkhali Gosāla's teachings in the Sāmmannaphala Sutta of the buddhist Dīgha Nikāya; and is also cited by Bronkhorst 2007: 42 ff.. Both Basham 1951: 219 and Bronkhorst 2007: 44 compare DN 1 pp. 53-54 with Viy1 15.101 and Viy2 15.68. They conclude that these passages must be derived from a common source. Bronkhorst 2007: 44 states that: "It also constitutes an important argument to look upon the passage in the Pāli Sāmannaphala Sutta as providing historical information about the Ājīvikas, even though there appear to be no precise parallels in Chinese and Tibetan."
Here, Jaini 1980: 228 n. 26 supplies quotations from the Tattvārthasūtra and from its commentary the Sarvārthasiddhi.
JDP1 4.132: [pra. 1] kahi naṃ bhante jambuddīve dīve mahāvidehe vāse mandare ṇāmaṃ pavvae paṇṇatte | [u.] goyamā uttarakurāe dakikhaṇeṇaṃ devakurāe uttareṇaṃ puvvavidehassa vāsassa paccatthimeṇaṃ avaravidehassa vāsassa puratthimeṇam jambuddīvassa bahumajjhadesabhāe ettha naṃ jambuddīve dīve mandare ṇāmaṃ pavvae paṇṇatte | [...].
The Jambuddīvapannatti (JDP1 4.138; JDP2 4.260) states that Mount Meru (Mandara) has sixteen names: 1. Mandara, 2. Meru, 3. Manorama, 4. Sudaṃsaṇa, 5. Sayaṃpabha, 6. Girirāyā, 7. Rayaṇoccaya, 8. Siloccaya, 9. Majjhe logassa, 10. Nābhī, 11. Accha, 12. Sūriavatta, 13. Sūriāvaraṇa, 14. Uttama, 15. Disādi, 16. Vaḍiṃsa.
JDP1 7.159: [pra] jambuddīve ṇaṃ bhaṃte dīve kai caṃdā pabhāsiṃsu pabhāsaṃti pabhāsissaṃti kai sūriā tavaiṃsu taveṃti tavissaṃti kevaiā ṇakkhattā jogaṃ joiṃsu joaṃti joissaṃti kevaiā mahaggahā cāraṃ cāriṃsu caraṃti carissaṃti kevaiāo tārāgaṇa koḍakoḍīo sobhiṃsu sobhaṃti sobhissaṃti [u] goyamā do caṃdā pabhāsiṃsu do sūriā tavaiṃsu chappaṇṇaṃ ṇakkhattā jogaṃ joīṃsu chāvattaraṃ mahaggahasayaṃ cāraṃ cariṃsu | egaṃ ca saya sahassaṃ tettīsaṃ khalu bhave sahassāiṃ | ṇava y sayā paṇṇāsā tārāgaṇakoḍikoḍīṇaṃ || JDP1 7.164 (the solar orbits with their distance from Meru): [pra 1] jambuddīve ṇaṃ bhaṃte dīve maṃdarassa pavvayassa kevaiāe abāhāe savvabbhaṃtare sūramaṃḍale paṇṇatte | [u] goyamā coālīsaṃ joaṇa sahassāiṃ aṭṭha ya vīse joaṇa sae abāhāe savvabbhaṃtare sūramaṃḍale paṇṇatte |; JDP1 7.175 (the lunar orbits): [pra 2] jambuddīve ṇaṃ bhaṃte dīve kevaaiṃ ogāhittā kevaiā candamaṇḍalā paṇṇattā | [u] goyamā jambuddīve dīve asīyaṃ sayaṃ ogāhittā paṃca candamaṇḍalā paṇṇattā |; JDP1 7.182 (the constellation orbits): [pra 1] kai ṇaṃ bhaṃte ṇakkhattamaṇḍalā paṇṇattā |[u] goyamā aṭṭha ṇakkhattamaṇḍalā paṇṇattā; JDP1 7.198 (the stellar orbits): [pra 1] mandarassa ṇaṃ bhante pavvayassa kevaiāe abāhāe joisaṃ carai | [u] goyamā ikkārasahiṃ joaṇa saehiṃ abāhāe joisaṃ cāraṃ carai |. See also, Kirfel 1920/1990: 285 for references to similar passages in the manuscripts he consults; and Schubring 1935/1962/2000: 234.
Sūrap 19.22.10: te merum aṇucaraṃtā, padāhiṇāvattamaṃḍalā savve | aṇavaṭṭhitehiṃ jogehiṃ, caṃḍā sūrā gahagaṇā ya ||. Sūrap 19.22.11: ṇakkhattatāragāṇam, avaṭṭhitā maṃḍalā muṇeyavvā | tevi ya padāhiṇāvattam eva meruṃ aṇucaraṃti ||. See also Sūrap. 19.23.
The Sūyagaḍa (Sūy 1.6.11) also states: "It [Meru] touches the sky and is immersed in the earth; round it revolve the suns; it has the colour of gold, and contains many Nandana (parks); on it the Mahendras enjoy themselves" (tr. Jacobi, 1895: 288). However, as mentioned above (p. 9, n. 34), this passage is an interpolation.
See below: Appendix B: "The Absence of the Concept of Mount Meru in Vedic Literature"; Appendix C: Mahābhārata (Mbh) 6.7.819, 27; Appendix D: Mahābhārata (Mbh) 3.102. 2-7; and Appendix E: Mahābhārata (Mbh) 3.160.24-29.
Other names for Meru are Hemameru (Cūḷavaṃsa 32.79), and Mahāneru (Majjhima Nikāya 1.38); see Malalasekera, 1960: 1136.
Fausboll, 196264, 3: 24648; Cowell, 18951907, 3: 159f. My thanks to Jens-Uwe Hartmann who clarified for me (Hartmann, personal communication, 7 September 2014) that there are no known manuscripts or fragments of the Sineru Sutta or the Neru Jātaka in Sanskrit.
See Bronkhorst 2007; 2008; 2011 for his analysis of the impact of the culture of Greater Magadha on brahmanical culture.
Vedic Brahmins sought access to the heavenly world, which they equated with the heavenly Sarasvatī (or Milky Way), by performing a yātsattra ("continuous sacrifice") known as the gavām ayana ("march of the cows"). For one year, they walked upstream along the banks of the Sarasvatī river with 100 cows and a bull, and performed sacrifices. They moved the sacrificial fire each day until they reached the river's source, which streamed forth from the world tree at Prakṣa Prāsravaṇa. The world tree was held to be the centre of the world (i.e., the centre of both heaven and earth) (JUB 4.26.12: plakṣasya prāsravaṇasya pradeśamātrād udak tat pṛthivyai madhyam); and the entrance to the heavenly world. The concepts of the heavenly Sarasvatī and the world tree at Prakṣa Prāsravaṇa in the vedic texts are replaced by the concepts of the heavenly Gaṅgā and Mount Meru in the Mahābhārata. See Witzel, 1984: 213-79; and Hiltebeitel, 2001: 148-52.
The Brahmins were ritual specialists renowned and feared for their ability to control and manipulate supernatural powers for the benefit or detriment of rulers and their kingdoms (e.g., the conquest of enemies, protection of kingdoms, acquisition of rain, male progenitors, a place in heaven, etc.).
Himavat also appears in Atharvaveda 4.9.9; 5.4.2, 8; 5.25.7; 6.24.1; 6.95.3; 12.1.11; 19.39.1; Taittirīya Saṃhitā 5.5.11; Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā 24.30; 25.12; and Aitareya Brāhmaṇa 8.14.3 See Kirfel, 1920/1990: 11 n. 1.
The first mention of Mount Meru in brahmanical literature is found in Taittirīya Āraṇyaka 1.7.13, where it is called "Mahāmeru." The reference is brief, and is without any indication of Mahāmeru's place within a broader cosmological system. Taittirīya Āraṇyaka 1.7.13: sa mahāmerum na jahāti | na hi śekum iva mahāmerum gantum iti | gacchanta mahāmerum |