Dr. N.P. Jain
1.1 The World Around Us.
Earth is a bright jewel pulsating with life in the enormously vast cosmos. It is the only live planet endowed with a fascinating variety of living species along with atmosphere, oceans and lakes, rivers, water falls and wind systems, mountains and clouds, soils, vegetation and forests. On this planet human destiny is intertwined with other living beings and forces of nature in a kind of divine web of interdependence. The earth is integrally related to the sun, the moon and the multi billion star galaxy of the planetary cosmos. Life would not exist on it if the universal elements did not sustain and support it. The universe belongs to all in equal measure - as much to the plants, birds and animals as it does to the human race.
1.2 Humanity’s Deep-Rooted Spiritual Urge.
Human race with its superior traits of intelligence, ingenuity, inquisitiveness, enterprise, rationality and sensitivity has been able to build civilizations and cultures. The blossoming of life has been reflected in both the spectacular progress in material comforts through strides in science and technology, as well as the deep-rooted spirit in human mind of enquiry into the mysteries of the universal creation. The irresistible call from within has constituted the spiritual dimension - the highest, deepest, and universally binding dimension of all. Whether one lives in north or south, east or west, is white, black or brown, rich or poor, man or woman, spiritual quest has inspired in differing forms and degrees of meditation, contemplation, prayer, ritual, restraint and selfdiscipline for grasping humanity’s extraordinary destiny in the unfathomable and mysterious universe. Spiritual urge has given birth to religions for relating spirituality to life. Greater and faster the material progress, there is even stronger realization of the need for spiritual understanding and the desire for wisdom (Beversluis, 1993).
1.3 Search For The Roots Of All Religions
Humanity’s search for the ultimate reality called by whatever name has been at the root of all religions. World history has been witness to a wide variety of religions coming up and asserting their identity ranging from tribal faiths to organised religions in different historical circumstances and geographical settings. The variety of religions would appear to be a testimony to the relativity of human beliefs rather than to the existence of one absolute reality, which stands behind all of them. Each religion is inspired by its own vision of the divine and has a distinct cultural identity. At the same time, each perceives the divine as the source of unity and peace (Rockfeller, 1993). Spiritual beliefs have been echoed in the songs and visions of prophets and saints, dreamers and poets, thinkers and philosophers in all parts of the world.
While individual religions may have certain predominant themes, in order to be foundation of a life culture, must be broad enough to inform all aspects of human experience. Hence, every religion has developed, within its own parameters, considerable diversity of belief and practice. This has over a period of time led to formation of sects and subsets in the same religion. The variety of ways of being human religiously also cut across the religions. Thus, the Roman Catholic mystic, the seeker of knowledge through Hindu Vedānta, the Jain ascetic saint scholar, and the contemplative Buddhist monk may have more in common with one another in terms of fundamental beliefs and perceptions than with members of the fundamentalist or rigidly ritualistic movements of their own traditions. Fundamentalist Muslims, Jews, Christian or Hindus may similarly find common ground in aggressive assertion not shared by their more spiritually and philosophically oriented co-religionists (Sen Amartya, 2005).
A poet has put it aptly:
So many sects, so many creeds, So many paths that wind and wind;
While just the art of being kind, is all this world needs.”
1.4 Spread Of Religions And Mutuality Of Impact.
In recent times while transport and communications revolution has brought distant parts of the world much closer, it remains true that even in early periods of human history, despite very difficult and arduous traveling by road or sea, human migrations have been going on. Traders and preachers have managed to influence and impact populations in different lands with their religious and cultural beliefs. The abiding interest in the Hindu Epic Rāmāyana in traditionally Buddhist Thailand is mirrored in their traditional dance drama. The sculptural presentations of Ramayana episodes adorning the Emerald Buddha temple in Thailand and Hindu temples in Bali (Indonesia) are telling examples. Angkor Wat - an ancient Vishnu temple in Cambodia bearing interalia, a striking resemblance to Jain Pancameru temple form - now a UNESCO heritage, and the preponderance of Sanskrit words in Thai, Laotion and Kambodge languages, and to an extent even in Chinese are other examples. According to Dr. Amartya Sen, the Noble laureate, the word “dhyāna” (meditation) has become “Ch’an” and then ‘Zen’ in Chinese. Likewise the word ‘mandarin’ appears derived from the word “Mantri”.
Muslim invasions led to forced mass conversions. Colonial conquest led to the spread of Christianity to distant lands in Asia, Africa and Americas. Buddhist Emperor Ashoka sent out his cultural envoys to spread Buddhism to Sri Lanka, countries of South East Asia, China and Mongolia, Korea and Japan. Certain Hindu customs and rituals can even now be traced in the culture and festivals of gypsies, who many centuries ago migrated from Haryana, India to Romania and Russia.
The religions of the world have not necessarily grown up in isolation; they have enriched one another in diverse ways at significant points of contact, while maintaining their distinct identity. This has happened between Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism as well in the early centuries. Therefore, it is inadequate to treat religions as discrete and independent entities. The Bhakti movement in India in the 15th century in the Moghul era produced secular singer saints from different communities and religions. Poet saints like Kabir, a weaver, Ravi Dās, a shoemaker, and Dādu, a cotton carder, and devotees like Mīrā Bāi and Sant Tukārāma became popular with the masses cutting across religions. They propagated universally common themes of faith, loyalty, fraternity, equality, tolerance, love and compassion. Both Hindu saints and Muslim Sufi saints have left an indelible impact on the Indian psyche transcending religions divides. Christian missionaries in India have earned popular appreciation through their valuable contribution in the form of wellrun schools, hospitals and social service activities particularly among the poor and the deprived. Jain saints were persuasive in Emperor Akbar issuing orders prohibiting killing of animals during religions days. While Akbar may have remained skeptical of Jain rituals, yet he became convinced by the Jain logic for vegetarianism, and ended up deploring the eating of all flesh (Sen, 2005). King Kumārapāla embraced Jainism in the 11th century A.D. and made Gujarat a predominantly vegetarian state.
1.5 Violent Inter-Faith And Inter-Sect Conflicts.
At the same time violent religious clashes between sects of the same religion have been a fact of history in Europe and elsewhere. Clashes between converting Christianity and aggressively expanding Islam have at times, been seen as a clash of civilizations. Muslim raiders destroying Hindu temples during Muslim invasions and Moghul rule in India stand out as examples of intolerance and fanaticism. There have been examples of Jain pilgrimage centers being encroached upon by Hindu diehards in Girnāra in Gujarat, Badrinātha in Uttar Pradesh and Keśariyājī in Rajasthan.
Thus the global perspective has not at all times been harmonious and accommodating. This has weakened and compromised universal translation into daily life ethics of people of love, synthesis, piety and compassion - which are fundamental tenets common to most religions. Instead ritualistic rigidities, caste-ridden prejudices and hypocritical assertions of egoistic superiority over other religions and even sects within each religion have found way in the mindset of priests as well as the common folk.
1.6 The Unique Features Of Jain Religion.
The unique feature of Jain religion has that it has never been proselytizing, and expansionary, and has been firmly anchored on the principle of Anekāntvāda, meaning multiple facets of truth and the need to understand and harmonies them. One need not be a born Jain to practice Jainism. Jain religion has been open to all those who may choose to embrace it out of voluntary convictions and beliefs. Mahatma Gandhi never embraced Jainism. However, he received such powerful spiritual vibrations from his Jain Guru Śrimad Rājacandra that he made it his life mission to propagate Ahimsa as well as Aparigraha and Anekant in practice. He was instrumental in initiating and successfully leading a non-violent struggle for India’s independence from colonial rule.
Thus although it is 2605 years since the Nirvāṇa of Bhagwan Mahāvīra the last Jain Tīrthaṅkara, Jain religion’s identity as a religion of spiritual renaissance is recognised. The calligraphed edition of the Constitution of India has upheld Jainism is a stream of spiritual renaissance, which seeks to refine and sublimate man’s conduct and emphasizes non-violence as the means to achieve it. Rabindranath Tagore, poet, philosopher and Nobel Laureate has observed:
“Mahāvīra proclaimed in India the message of salvation that religion is in reality and not a mere convention that salvation comes from taking refuge in the true religion and not from observing its ritualistic ceremonies.”
1.7 The Spiritual Impulse Of Jain Religion
Jainism is among the oldest and still living world religions of today along with Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism from early times, Judaism, Sikhism and Taoism came up later. Jain religion has its own distinctive scriptures, history and a long philosophical tradition, which is both non-vedic as well as pre-vedic non-aryan as well as pre-aryan. Like Buddhism, it flourished in India on account of royal patronage. Unlike Buddhism, it has all along had followers predominantly from the merchant communities. However, interestingly enough, all the 24 Tīrthaṅkara of Jain religion (beginning with the founder Ṙṣbhadeva or Ādināth and ending with Mahāvīra), who have guided the evolution of Jain religion through many centuries, have been from the ruling warrior (Ksatriya) families. They gave up all power, luxuries and material comfort to take to the path of detachment, renunciation and penance to find the truth about human existence and its destiny in the ongoing cycle of birth and death, and the process of the soul going through several incarnations in different life forms. The Tīrthaṅkaras have been human beings who emerged after enlightenment as spiritual victors. None of them was a God sitting in heaven bestowing his blessings, mercy or miracles on his followers. They first practiced and then preached; they first achieved and then showed the way.
The founder - Tīrthaṅkara was Ādināth (Ṙṣbhadeva) who ruled over India before the Aryan invasion of India. India’s name ‘Bharat’ is indeed derived from the name of his son, who succeeded him to the throne. Ādināth’s rule is said to have been the beginning of the organised and settled society with clear division of labour. The division of labour devised him comprised of 6 fields namely Asi (Warriors’ duties), kriṣi (Agriculture), Masi (Reading and Writing), Vidyā (varied arts), Vāṇijya (trade and commerce), and Śilpa (in industry and crafts).
The Indus valley civilization, as revealed in the excavations at Harappā and Mohenjodāro, depicts an entire society and its civilization built on the edifice of Ahimsa (Non-violence). No traces of weapons have been revealed nor any defensive fortifications found around the cities. In his book, “Sources of Civilisation”, Gerald Herd observes that the civilisation had nurtured such a psychological environment that violence of any kind became abhorrent to it. Aryan invasion of India brought the input of the cult of violence through introduction of the practice of animal sacrifice at religious yajñas. In the Vedic references to the people of the land at the time of the coming in of Aryans, there is mention of their language Brāhmi and of their spiritual beliefs. They are described as “MŕduVācā ”, speaking a soft language, and are said to worship “Śiśna devas” meaning nude yogis (Cakravarti, 2005). Dr. Radhakrishnan has also observed in his book “Indian Philosophy” that there should be no doubt that Jainism was in periods much earlier to the period of Tīrthaṅkara Pārśvanātha (around 750 B.C.) and Mahāvīra (599 BC - 527 BC). Bhāgwata Purāṇa also supports Ṙṣbhadeva as founder of Jain religion and philosophy. Thus, the Jain spiritual quest traces its beginnings to the formation of organized societies after transition from nomadic life.
1.8 Beginnings Of Inter-Faith Dialogue
The first Parliament of Worlds’ Religions convened in 1893 at Chicago (USA) marked the beginning of inter faith dialogue and cooperation in the modern world. It acquired significance, as it was the first encounter between representatives of the Western religions and Asian religions like Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. Swami Vivekananda’s speech at the Parliament made Indians proud as it made a profound appeal for one-ness of humanity, and promotion of fraternity, tolerance and equanimity. In his opening address to the 1893 Parliament, Hon. Charles Carroll Bonney observed:
“The very basis of our convocation is the idea that the representatives of each religion sincerely believe it is the truest and the best of all, and that they will, therefore, hear with perfect candor and without fear the convictions of other sincere souls on the great questions of the immortal life.”
1.9 Active Representation Of Jain Religion.
Jain religion was represented by Veerchand Raghavji Gandhi - a lawyer-scholar who made an impassioned plea for Jain religion’s integrated concept of non-violence in thought, action and expression as a foundation for a peaceful world devoid of ego, hatred, exploitation and injustice. The 1993 Parliament convened exactly after a century and brought together 7000 participants including over 50 from Jain religion as against only 4000 in 1893. However, even after interminable debates, the delegates could not formally adopt the Declaration of Global Ethic, so thoughtfully and meticulously drafted by an inter-faith drafting group, which included seven prominent Jain saints and scholars. The Declaration reflected the basic principles of Jain philosophy. The right to life for all living beings, peaceful mutual supportiveness among them and reverence for nature were included prominently among the Irrevocable Directives for Commitment to a Global Ethic.
Parliament of World’s Religions subsequently holding its session in Cape Town (S. Africa) in 1999 and Barcelona (Spain) in 2003 tried to push forward the idea of building creative inter faith engagement for the common cause of bringing relief to the needy in the spheres of education, health care, disaster relief and social justice sans discrimination. However, the challenging fact remains that at all these conferences, each religious group concentrated on spreading awareness about its own identity and ideology. All the same the coming together of learned representatives from different religions has served to strengthen the feeling of multiculturalism, as well as spiritual unity and harmony. At all these conferences, the constructive and harmonising role of Jain delegates was widely appreciated.
1.10 The Key Element Of Soul Power
Religious impulse under Jain religion has from its early beginnings been equated with the realization of the potential, omniscient and omnipotent power of each soul after getting liberated from Karmic bondages and attachments. Jainism believes in a kind of ‘Spiritual Socialism’ as it treats all souls as equal irrespective of whether they are in a human body or the body of any other living being. The path of enlightenment is sought by finding the kingdom of heaven within one’s inner-self. The soul goes through successive embodiments in different life forms until it purifies itself to the highest degree of spirituality, emancipates itself from attachment with all Karmic matter, and experiences salvation. Indeed the word “Jain” has been derived from the word “Jina”, which means conqueror of self. The entire process is summed up in the term “Āsrava” (inflow of Karmic matter causing misery and suffering) is the cause of mundane existence, and ‘Saṅvara’ (stoppage of that inflow) is the cause of liberation (Sarvadarśana samgraha). This is the centerpiece of the Jain spiritual impulse.
Mahāvīra observed:
“One who has conquered one’s inner-self, gains freedom from attachment;
One who has conquered attachment, gains freedom from desires;
One who has conquered desires, becomes full of equanimity”.Jainism does not believe in the existence of any one entity like God or any other supreme natural power. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, former President of India and a renowned scholar of Indian philosophy, writes in his book “Indian Philosophy”,
“According to Jainism, the whole universe of being has existed from all eternity undergoing infinite number of revolutions produced by the power of nature without the intervention of any external deity. The diversities of the world are traced to the five cooperative conditions of “Time” (Kāla), ‘nature’ (Svabhāva), ‘necessity’ (Niyati), ‘activity’ (karma), and ‘desire to be and to act’ (Udyama). This makes a living being master of his own destiny based on the quality of his “Karma”.
Mahāvīra has said:
“Maker, un-maker of pleasure and pain for the self, Is the self itself and none else;
Self again is friend and foe, that induces good or evil.”It is worth noting that even Vedas, despite the belief in God in heaven and his coming down to earth in human incarnation when needed, have expressed a degree of skepticism in the song of creation.
The relevant portion reads thus:
“Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?
Perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not –
the one who looks down on it, in the highest heaven,
only he knows or perhaps he does not know.”
(Rigveda, 10, 1129, English translation by Wendy Donign O’Flaherty in “The Rig Veda anthology”)
1.11 The Evolution Of Jain Śramaṇica Tradition
Thus, cultural pluralism and heterodoxy has characterized the growth of Indian culture and spirituality from the earliest times. Jainism along with Buddhism has made a vital contribution to the enriching of the range and reach of this heterodoxy and diversity of beliefs. From the beginning, Jainism has displayed a spirit of synthesis and respect for the relativity of truth (Anekantvad). Śramanic tradition comprising Jainism and Buddhism, thus, ensured that evolution of Indian culture did not get confined to the narrow prism of orthodox Hinduism. Dr. Amartya Sen in his book, “The Argumentative Indian” has applauded the role of Jainism and Buddhism in strengthening the fiber of the rationalist part of India’s cultural heritage and taken away the exaggerated focus on narrow religiosity.
Śramaṇica tradition owes its origin to the first Tīrthaṅkara Ṙṣbhadeva. As an Emperor, he had initiated the beginning of organized society based on division of labour and specialization of functions. Later as an initiator of Jain religion, he laid the foundation of Śramaṇa culture by laying down Code of Conduct both for the monks as well as for the laypersons. The 22nd Tīrthaṅkara Ariṣŧanemi put stress on preventing cruelty towards animals and other living beings and showing love and compassion to them on the same wavelength as to other human beings. The 23rd Tīrthaṅkara Pārśvanātha elaborated the principle and practice of Ahimsa to include search for truth (Satya), Non- Stealing (asteya), restraint and detachment (aparigraha). This gave Ahimsa a social and practical orientation in terms of human conduct in day-to-day life.
The 24th Tīrthaṅkara Mahāvīra gave the Śramaṇa culture a well-knit organizational base through his Chaturvidh sangh. The four pillars of the Jain Saṅgh since then have been the monks (sādhu), the nuns (sādhvī), the śrāvakas and the śrāvikās (religious votary house holders). This organisational network gave Śramaṇa tradition a definitive and systematic direction, which is still the guidepost. Śramaṇa culture became more effective since at that time violent forms of worship through sacrifice of animals at the altar of the fire of yajñas had become a common Vedic karmic tradition.
1.12 The Concept Of Śramaṇa Culture
In its earliest origins, Jain religion owes its beginning to “Śramaṇa Culture”, which constitutes its fundamental spiritual impulse and ascetic tradition. Simply explained, Śramaṇica culture is restraint and detachment based on voluntary physical, mental and intellectual effort, which is propelled by ardent soul-discipline, strong will power, courage and resolve. It aims at moving towards renunciation of worldly material bondages, breaking through the mirage (Māyā) of material happiness, taking to the path of meditation, penance, physical restraint vows, fasting and such other forms of physical rigour, hardship and austerity reinforced by intellectual and emotional discipline. This has created the generally held impression of Jain religion being extremely austere and difficult to follow.
However, in its application it provides flexibility of choice for the layperson to proceed in stages from modest restraint to increasing penance and detachment. The approach is to practice the basic tenets as practicable to one’s station in life and strength of one’s will power through a process of physical as well as mental and emotional self-control (Saṅyama). The psychology is not one of being forced to do it with a kind of suffering imposed, but as a task undertaken with enthusiasm, delight and serenity. Thus for the saints five Mahāvratas provide the code of conduct. The same constituted five Aṇūvrata for the laypersons. The five vratas are: Non-violence (Ahiṅsā), Truthfulness (Satya), Non-stealing (Asteya), Celibacy (Bŕhmacarya) and Non-possession / Nonattachment (Aparigraha).
Jains hold these vows at the centre of their lives. These vows cannot be fully implemented without the acceptance of a philosophy of non-absolutism (Anekānatvāda) and the theory of relativity (Syādvāda). Monks and nuns follow these vows strictly and totally, while the common people follow them as far as their ability and desire permit. Śramaṇa code of conduct is an intense endeavor over a long period, which enables a person to mediate and contemplate with total concentration, mental peace and serenity. Such an individual, be a he or a she, a monk/nun or śrāvakas/ śrāvikās moves steadily towards awakened intellectual insight, and strengthened soul energy. It took 12½ years of “Sādhanā” and penance for Mahāvīra to achieve inner piece, enlightenment and elevated consciousness about man’s union with universe and time, and omniscience (Kevalajñāna).
Śramaṇica disciplined effort moulds a person’s will power, faith, logic, instinct, sensitivity and confidence towards steady spiritual awakening. The basic premise is that both the physical and the mental endeavor should be with a feeling of joy and delight and of voluntary seeking and conviction. Jain religion believes that no one is born inheriting the totality of Śramaṇa culture. No one is born a muni (Monk), Sadhavi (nun). It is only by embarking upon the path of “Sādhanā” that a person can transform himself steadily into a spiritually elevated being. Śramaṇa culture makes a person not only totally absorbed in the endeavor to attain soul-realization, but simultaneously a person who is selflessly noble and kind towards other living beings, and is full of equanimity. It is through such attributes that he can guide or inspire others in the direction of spiritual advancement.
1.13 The Role Of 24 Tīrthaṅkaras And Their Holy Order.
The 24 Tīrthaṅkaras appearing on earth at different periods of time have been the supreme pathfinders and spiritual guides. Their religious teachings were orally passed on to successive generations till they were eventually recorded in writing about one thousand years after Mahāvīra’s attaining nirvana. They were codified and systematized in Mahāvīra’s sermons and discussions with his eleven Gaṇadharas (leading pupils) led by Indrabhūti Gautama. The oral “Dvādaśāṅga (Āgama sūtras) given by Mahāvīra became the base for Jain scriptures, which later took the shape of “Dvādaśāṅga” and fourteen “Pūrvas”.
Since Brāhmi script came into being during the rule of Ṙṣabhadeva, it is reasonable to assume that on becoming a monk and after achieving enlightenment, he might have also got his sermons recorded. Succeeding Tīrthaṅkaras till Mahāvīra may also have done it. But no records could have survived for over 20 centuries between Ṙṣbhadeva and Mahāvīra. The earliest stone inscriptions referring to Ṙṣabhadeva can be traced upto 4th and 5th centuries B.C.
Śramaṇa culture was full of outstanding intellectual and scholarly effort on the part of monks and nuns. It is fascinating that Jain scriptures cover in their totality not only the spiritual, but equally the scientific, logical, and practical aspects of the religion. They represent a treasure house of knowledge covering not only life ethics but also information, knowledge and wisdom relating to Cosmos and atoms, biology, geology, sociology, anthropology, ontology, logic, metaphysics, philosophy, mythology, ethics, rituals, astronomy, mathematics and so on. This is reflective of not only abundantly inquisitive and research oriented outlook of Jain saints, but also of the wide canvas of their spiritual vision and multifaceted perception of the nature of truth in keeping with Jainism being a complete and comprehensive religious and cultural doctrine with universal orientation in its range and reach.
Dr. Hermann Jacobi of Germany has observed that Jain literature is of great importance for our knowledge of the ancient literature of India. Jainism contains a vast mine of knowledge that is well worth exploring by all who are interested in the history and culture, both philosophical and religious of ancient India. Treasure house of knowledge in Jain religion was the creation of learned monks and nuns in the post Mahāvīra era. This is indicative of the deep-rooted devotional intellectual and scholarly tradition and strength of the Jain Śramaṇa culture.
1.14 Śramaṇa And Vedic Cultures - Mutual Complementarities And Synthesis.
The soul-centric Jain spiritual impulses enshrined in the Śramaṇa culture basically reflected Nivratti/-detachment, while the contemporary pre-Vedic Śaiva culture and later the Vedic culture reflected Pravratti / engagement). Interestingly enough Indian culture as it evolved reflected synthesis between the two spiritual streams. Upanishads show how Hinduism was influenced by the Jain Śramaṇa practice and discipline of penance, vows, fasting, meditation and contemplation. Likewise Jain Śramaṇa culture was influenced by the ritual and customs of the Hindu culture. Peaceful and complimentary co-existence of Śramaṇa and Vedic cultures in early centuries has been corroborated by renowned foreign travelers to India notably Magasthenes in the early third century B.C. and Chinese travelers like Faxian (Fa-Hsien) in the 5th and 6th century A.D. and others.
Ācārya Sushil Kumar, who was the first to break the rules for traveling abroad by plane to propagate Ahimsa in the world, has observed in his book “Jain dharma”:“Both the Śramaṇa and the Vedic cultures are complete only through their synthesis. They have been complimenting each other. If one designates Vedic culture as stomach and feet, the Jain and Buddhist Śramaṇa culture could be called the heart and the brain Vedic texts do not provide any well knit and rigorously disciplined code of conduct for the Śramaṇica monks and nuns. Likewise the Śramaṇica Jain and Buddhist texts, while providing for religious guidelines for the laypersons, do not elaborate as much on the duties and responsibilities of the family life, which find a more eloquent place in Vedic texts. The synthesis between the two traditions in vital in order to strike a desired balance between (ritual) Saṅsakāra (Sacramental values) and Śraddhā (faith), Karma (activity) and tyāga (renunciation), Nivratti and Pravratti.”
In his introduction to a book on Jain temples, Dr. L.M. Singhvi has observed that constant and open contact, and on-going intellectual debates between scholars of Śramaṇa and Vedic cultures brought out both similarities and differences, and promoted synthesis. The discipline of the Śramaṇa saṅgha and the non-violence oriented path of penance had a positive impact on the philosophical and spiritual debates of the Upaniṣada period.
Nivratti, Trigupti, Pravajjyā, Angaratva and Saṅlekhanā procedures and practices influenced the Hindu customs and rituals aimed at getting rid of Karmic attachments. Over time Jain culture also weaned away Hindus from animal sacrificing Yajñas (sacrificial fire). Aware of increasing spread of the practice of animal sacrifice in Hindu. Yagnas, Mahāvīra explained in his sermon to his pupil Gautam that true Yajña is one in which one destroys one’s Karmas and purifies one’s thoughts, expressions and conduct and not the one in which sacrificial fire engulfs innocent animals. Taking life of other living beings or torturing them is cruelty and the very anti-thesis of the Jain doctrine of ahimsa.
As a result of interaction between Śramaṇa and Vedic cultures in the vedic times, Indian culture, in its evolution, was deeply impacted by the Śramaṇa principles of Ahimsa, tolerance, equanimity, cooperative co-existence, live and let live. These attributes have become integral parts of the Indian cultural heritage. Buddhism was also inspired by the Jain beliefs and perceptions.
Early Buddhist literature like Dhammika-sutta makes appreciative references to Jain Tīrthaṅkaras including particularly Ṙṣabhadeva, Neminātha, Pārśvanātha and Mahāvīra. Jainism is not shown as a new religion, but is referred to as an ancient religion (Sangave, 1993). Buddhism like Jainism also enshrined Śramaṇa culture. It was, however, with differing and somewhat less austere intensity. The degree of conceptual and doctrinal as well as ritualistic flexibility was mirrored in the middle path concept. Buddhism, which has now many more followers abroad in East Asian and Far East countries, got oriented to local ethos and became less rigid, austere and strict and more flexible in terms of interpreting and applying the concept of Ahiṅsā in day-to-day life.
In a very thoughtful observation, the third Head (Pattadhara) of the Sthānakvāsi sect of Jainism, late Ācārya Devendra wrote: “The root of the Jain Śramaṇa culture lay in recognizing the omnipotent power and energy of the soul, and seeking to prescribe the path to achieve soul consciousness and strength of the inner spirit, Vedic culture preached the cult of God as the omnipotent power, who came down to earth, when needed, in human incarnation. Humans needed to worship and please God in order to get his blessings, mercy and miracles. While Śramaṇa culture promoted self-reliance of the soul, Vedic culture promoted dependence on God. Vedic culture upheld God as creator, preserver and destroyer of the world, while Śramaṇa culture maintained that through noble deeds, steady detachment and mental and physical restraint, meditation and contemplation, a soul can weaken and gradually get rid of the karmic bondage which keeps it tied to the cycle of birth and death.”
1.15 The Core Strengths Of Jain Śramaṇa Culture.
Jain Śramaṇa culture combines in itself the glory of the pursuit of true knowledge, the towering heights of the pursuit of devotion, the thorny pursuit of Aparigraha (non-possessiveness) detachment, renunciation and penance, the serene pursuit of spiritual meditation and contemplation, the blissful discovery of the fundamental spiritual base of true knowledge (Samyak Jñāna), perception (Samyak Darśana) and conduct (Samyak Cāritra) and the sublimity of spiritual awakening. “Namokāra Mantra” succinctly reflects the deep reverence and respect for the Śramaṇa culture by saluting the five “Paṅchparmeṣthi”. Highest regards are for Arihanta and Siddha entities followed by Ācārya, Upādhyāya and Sādhus. They are the ‘Gurus’ and hence examples to emulate. Jain religion equates such pious Gurus (teachers) with Holy Scriptures and the supreme souls. In worship rituals, it is usual to find dev (divinity), Śāstra (scripture) and Guru (guide) bracketed together. It is their example, which demonstrates that Śramaṇa culture is the art of the possible, given the will, the discipline and the urge to move towards self-realization.
1.16 Conclusions
Jainism’s spiritual quest remained, by and large, confined to India. This was largely due to the severe restrictions forming part of the code of conduct for the monks and sādhvīs who could not travel except on foot. Yet Jainism spread to distant parts of India, judging from the discovery of ancient Jain temples in M.P., Gujarat, North India, South India, Bihar, U.P., Orissa and Bengal. Buddhism entered global awareness, as it became the religion of the people particularly in south east Asia, China, Mangolia, Korea and Japan. It has deeply influenced the indigenous cultural heritage in these countries. But it did not spread in South India. However, it is interesting that the pinnacle of royal patronage was reached in the case of Jain religion when Emperor Chandragupta Maurya after ruling for 24 years took to the path of renunciation after embracing Jainism around 299 BC. He became a monk and travelled to South India with 12000 Digambar monks during the twelve year famine in North India under the leadership of the last Srutkevali Bhadrabahu. Jainism received very firm moorings in South India as early as the 3rd century BC. The historic 57 ft high unique granite statue of Bahubali put up in the 11th century by the local ruler. Chamundrai is a vivid reflection of the glory of Jain Śramaṇa culture over many centuries. The Bahubali statue is a unique example of the divine grandeur of Jain Śramaṇa culture.
It is towards the end of 19th century and with much greater momentum in the 20th century that Jain businessmen and professionals started settling down in community groups all over Africa and in recent times in USA, Canada, U.K. and other countries. A large number of temples have come up in these countries as Jain community abroad continues to nurture religious faith as well as rituals. Slowly and steadily educated Jain professionals, scholars and traveling monks and nuns are realizing the need to put emphasis also on the global perspective for focusing on the relevance of Jain religion and philosophy for the entire humanity.
This task is a challenging one given the general inclination to get absorbed in ritualistic part of the religion. However, as inter-faith dialogue gets into momentum, and multi-religious communities coexist side by side in many countries, it is important to highlight and bring home the philosophical aspects of Jainism, which have a great deal to contribute towards shaping global life ethics.