Concept Of Soul / Self (Ātmā) In Jain Philosophy

Jain philosophy is based on the duality of existence i.e. as living beings and non-living beings. Here also the main focus of Jain philosophy is the living being only and there also it is the self / soul or ātmā which is specific to me the individual ‘I’. To understand this through an example, we can say that ātmā is the addressee while the rest of the living beings and non-beings are like the address on the envelope. Therefore a number of philosophers have called Jain philosophy highly spiritual. The holy texts of Hindus, namely Vedas and Purāṇas also mention that the first preacher of Jain religion, Lord Ṙṣabha Deva, was an exponent of the science and knowledge of soul. A reader will find extremely detailed and logical description of soul in Jain philosophical literature. There is no aspect of soul which has not been elucidated by Jain preceptors / acaryas in Jain literature. Not only have they explained the subject but also they have analyzed the subject with facts and figures and with all their pros and cons.

The reason behind such a detailed treatment given to the subject by Jain philosophers and ācāryas had been that the knowledge of self / soul is the foundation of the religion and ignorance about it is the cause of all pain in this world. One starts becoming religious by acquiring the knowledge of the self. Without knowledge of the self, our religious activities do not yield the desired spiritual beneficence. Jains say that one who knows the self knows everything, the cosmos, the canonical literature and on. In fact he has achieved emancipation. However the one who does not have the true knowledge of the self and has the vast knowledge of all books and other worldly arts, sciences and objects are still termed as ignorant (ajñāni). Therefore as per Jain ācāryas, the first and foremost essential duty of every individual is to acquire the true knowledge of self, even at the expense of leaving all his worldly affairs. Until one has the knowledge of the self, he cannot progress further on the path of spiritual purification ^[1].

To describe the detailed explanation of the self in the Jain literature, one article or even a book may not suffice. Therefore I suggest the books (given at the end of the paper), which the inquisitive reader can refer to know more about the self.

I will now attempt to explain the concept of soul through the following points / topics.

• Existence of soul / self (ātmā)
• Difference between soul and jīva (living being)
• Synonyms of jīva and self in Jain texts and their meaning.
• Etymological meanings of soul and jīva
• Nature of jīva, its nine basic virtues
• Elimination of wrong concepts of soul/ self
• Types and subtypes of jīva.
• Nature of soul as per spiritual texts like Samaya Sāra.
• Experiencing the self and the ways to do so.
• Three types of soul / ātmā
• Summary

Some people, due to their ignorance or insistence of their own perspective, blame Jain philosophy as atheists. To support this they say that Jain philosophy does not believe in soul / supreme soul, merit / demerit, heaven / hell etc. However this is totally false. We cannot discuss all the reasons and support this statement but insist that Jain philosophy believes very clearly and in lucid terms the existence of soul / supreme soul, heaven/hell and merit / demerit. Jain philosophy not only believes in the existence of soul but proves its existence with all its logic, examples etc.

Jain ācāryas in their philosophical works have presented many reasons / logic to prove the existence of soul. Ācārya Samanta Bhadra (3 century AD) has written a full text on ‘The Existence of Soul’, named as ‘Jīva Siddhi’ and gave many reasons to establish the existence of soul. Some important reasons given by Jain ācāryas to prove the existence of soul are as follows:

1. Like a mechanical statue, with its features, tries to establish the existence of its sculptor, similarly capabilities (prāṇas) like breathing etc. establish the existence of soul.^[2]
2. I am happy, I am sad etc. etc such feelings involving ‘I’ automatically proves the existence of soul.^[3]
3. Since there is the word ‘Soul’; therefore there should be a meaning of this word also. An entity which does not existence is also not represent-able by words.^[4]
4. Attributes (knowledge and bliss etc.) cannot exist without their owner (gūṇī). That owner of these attributes is soul only.^[5]

Besides these supporting arguments, Syādvādamanjari gives this foolproof reason to establish the existence of soul. “What is the knowledge that this is soul? Is this knowledge a doubt (saṅśaya) or perverse (viparyaya), or indecisiveness (anadhyavasāya) or is true? It has to be some sort of knowledge. If it is a doubt, then it proves the existence of soul, as we do not doubt non-existent entities. If it is perverse, then also it proves the existence of soul, as an unknown or less known entity cannot have perverse. It cannot be indecisiveness, as from the beginning-less time we have experienced soul. And if it is true knowledge than it automatically proves is existence.^[6]

Thus we find Jain literature full of assertive reasons to prove the existence of soul.

Both jīva and ātmā are synonymous really. Function and nature of both of them is same. However both the terms are used differently and it is important to understand these terms and their usage.

The word jīva is used in philosophical / textual and doctrinal discussions while the word ātmā is used in spiritual discourses. We can also say that jīva is the object of knowledge and study while ātmā is the object of meditation and experience. We can also say that jīva is the subject of academia / universities and ātmā is the subject of temples / holy places where monks stay. In fact we are all living beings but soul is used just for self and not for all. An example is we call man to all male human beings but we call husband specific to a woman; houses are many but home is one specific to an individual. Similarly living beings are infinite but soul is just self or I out of all living beings. I am soul / self for me but a living being for you all. Mathematically we can express this as follows:

jīva + feeling of ‘I’ = ātmā
ātmā - feeling of ‘I’ = jīva

In the terms of Logic texts, we can differentiate ātmā and jīva as pervaded (vyāpya) and pervader or one who pervades (vyāpaka). Soul is pervaded and jīva is pervader. Thus we can call ātmā as jīva but not vive versa. Like mango and tree are related as pervader and pervaded, so are jīva and ātmā. Hence a tree is called a mango tree but any tree cannot be called mango. Thus we see it is essential to understand the diference between soul / self and living being.

Jain texts, especially Dhavalā (Ācārya Vīra Sena 10th AD) and Gommaṭasāra (Ācārya Nemi Candra Siddhāntacakravarti 1,1th century AD), mention a number of synonyms or equivalents of jīva along with their meanings clearly. Briefly some synonyms of living being (empirical soul) are given below:

The above synonyms in fact indicate the attributes of jīva as per Jain texts.

Even though there are numerous synonyms of the words soul and living beings in Jain texts, yet the most commonly words are jīva and ātmā. Therefore we shall attempt o understand the meanings and significance of these two words specifically. Jīva in Jain literature has been described as the one who lives, lived in the past and shall live in the future namely:

Pāṇehiṅ cadūhiṅ jīvādi jīvissadi jo hi jīvido puvvaṅ ^[8]
Daśasu prāṇeṣu yathopāttaprāṇaparyāyena triṣu kāleṣu jīvanānubhavanāt jīvati,
ajīvait, jīviṣyati eti vā jīvaħ. ^[9]

Etymological development and meaning of the word Ātmā is said to be an entity that always manifests (transform, changes, originates and destroys) as knowledge. Ātmā in Sanskrit formed with the syllable ‘ata’(ata sātatyagamane) having two meanings namely to go and knowledge and both are applicable here.

5. Understanding the nature of soul by its nine attributes / characteristics.

To present a lucid description of jīva, Jain ācāryas have used the nine characteristics of jīva. Ācārya Nemi Candra Sindhanta Deva (11th century AD) in his text Dravya Saṅgraha has explained all these nine characteristics in thirteen verses (gāthās). These nine characteristics are very briefly given below:

1. Jīvatva
   An entity which lives, as per absolute viewpoint with the force and capability of its consciousness and as per practical viewpoint with its four forces /capabilities of breathe, lifespan, sensual organs and its energy, is called to have jīvatva or is called jīva.
   
   
2. Upyogamaya or able to manifest
   Here upyoga means primarily manifestation of consciousness into intuition (darśanopyoga) and knowledge (jñānaopyoga). There are further sub divisions of these two manifestations of consciousness that we do not discuss at this stage. However it is to be understood that this manifestation of consciousness is the primary or main characteristic of jīva in Jain philosophy e.g. the verses ‘upyogo lakṣaṇam’ ^[10] and ‘cetanālakṣaṇo jīvaħ’ ^[11] indicate this concept clearly.
   
   
3. Amūrtika - non-concrete
   Jīva by its nature is non-concrete and attributes like touch, taste, colour and odour are not associated with it.
   
   
4. Kartā or Doer/ Agent
   From absolute viewpoint, it is the doer of its nature and from practical viewpoint it is the doer of its matter karmas.
   
   
5. Svadehaparimāṇa or is of the size of the body it owns.
   Jīva expands or contracts in shape and size according to the body it lives in at different times. When it is liberated of all its kārmika impurities, it is of the size and shape slightly less than the last body it owned.
   
   
6. Bhoktā or enjoyer
   From absolute viewpoint, it is the enjoyer of its nature and from practical viewpoint it is the enjoyer of its matter karmas.
   
   
7. Saṅsārastha or exists in this cosmos.
   From the beginning-less time, it exists in this cosmos at different places and destinies.
   
   
8. Siddha or Pure soul
   When it is fully free from all the kārmika impurities, then it attains the status of siddha (one who attained its objective) or mukta (free from bondages). It stays in this status forever and is omniscient, detached and in a state of bliss. It does not get born again in any other form (no
   reincarnation).
   
   
9. Urghvagamana or to move upwards
   Like the flame of a fire, its nature is to always move straight up but due to kārmika bondage it appears to moving in different directions.

Jain ācāryas used the above nine characteristics of jīva to remove the misconceptions about jīva of different philosophies/ philosophers. Besides these, they have also given logical explanations emphatically to clearly explain the Jain concept of jīva. Given below is the explanation of jīva as per Jain philosophy.

i.	Jīva has existence.	It cannot be treated as void or non-existent or imaginary.
ii.	Jīva is completely independent.	It is not a part of any God. It exists by itself.
iii.	Infinite jīvas exists in this cosmos.	They look similar but are different and infinite.
iv.	Jīva is capable of manifestation.	Neither created by nor a combination of the five basic elements.
v.	Its nature is consciousness	Consciousness is not just an attribute but is nature of jīva.
vi.	Its non-concrete and indestructible.	It is neither with extensions, nor with origination / destruction.
vii.	It is elastic by nature.	It is neither omnipresent nor a pointless existence. It expands and contracts fully as per the body it owns.
viii.	Doer / agent of its acts (bhāva)	Nobody else is the benefactor or agent of its activities. It is responsible for all its activities and their results.
ix.	Knows and experiences its self.	‘Sva-par prakasaka’ i.e. it knows its own self as well as all other beings also.
x.	Delusion, attachment etc.	Delusion, attachment and aversion etc. are not its nature but they exist to some extent. They look like that but after destroying all these, it can attain pure state.

As per Jain philosophy, there are infinite jīvas in this cosmos. By there characteristics, they look alike but from modal viewpoint they are all different. They are classified in different categories like on the basis of the sense organs or on the basis of their ability to move or the basis of their place of existence etc. One such classification is shown in the chart below.

Jīva
Saṅsāri / empirical		Mukta / liberated
Sthāvara / immobile (One sensed)	Tras / mobile (2-5 sensed)
Water bodied	2 senses
Air bodied	3 senses
Fire bodied	4 senses
Soil or earth bodied Vegetation	5 senses

Similarly jīva can be classified in a number of ways based on its destiny (gati) (like human, sub-human, heavenly and hellish) or its capability to achieve liberation (bhavya and abhavya) or its state of spiritual purification (gunasthānas) etc.

As we have seen earlier that the word jīva is used in philosophical / textual and doctrinal discussions while the word ātmā is used in spiritual discourses. We can also say that jīva is the object of knowledge and study while ātmā is the object of meditation and experience. Jain philosophy is considered highly spiritual philosophy in which meditation on the self and its knowledge attribute are the focal points for study and practice. Jain acaryas like Kunda Kunda in their texts have emphasized these two points extensively. Hence we shall discuss soul from the spiritual viewpoint only.

It is said that existence of soul and its experience are inexplicable i.e. cannot be described by speech. Therefore we do find description of jiva in affirmative terms texts but description of soul is seen more from the negation form. Affirmatively Jain texts only say that soul is an amalgam of intuition, knowledge, and conduct etc. and even these are refuted immediately saying that these are different while soul is inseparable or cannot be divided into parts.

Vavahāreṇuvadissadi ṇāṇissa caritta daṅsaṇaṅ ṇāṇaṅ,
ṇa vi ṇāṇaṅ ṇa caritaṅ ṇa daṅsaṇaṅ jāṇago suddho ^[12]

Meaning: from practical viewpoint we say that knowledge, intuition and conduct are the attributes of soul but from absolute viewpoint it has neither of these; it is just the knower. Similarly Samayasāra, as per verses given below explains these in a negation style.

Arasamaruvagaṅdhaṅ avattavaṅ cedaṇāguṇamasaddaṅ,
Jā ṇa aliṅgagahaṇaṅ jīivamaṇidditthsantthāṇaṅ ^[13]
Ahamekko khalu suddo daṅsananānamaiosadārūvī,
ṇa vi attha majjha kiṅci vi aṇṇaṅ parmānumettaṅ pi ^[14]

The first verse is very popular and found in all the five texts by Kunda Kunda. It says that soul is without taste or form or odour and is inexplicable, is with consciousness, is without any gender and you know it like this. In the second verse it says, “I am one, pure, with intuition and knowledge, non concrete. Except my nature of intuition and knowledge, not even an iota of other matter is mine”.

Another way of enunciating the difference between soul and living being is that living being is always described as a collection of pure and impure manifestation of its nature but soul is always described as per its just pure nature and without any impurities associated.^[15] Niyama Sāra verses 44-48 say that from absolute viewpoint soul is without bondage, without ant attachments, free of all flaws, without any desire or anger or deceit or pride. Even the empirical soul from the absolute viewpoint is like siddhas (existing in the summit of the cosmos) without body or sense organs or destruction and is pure and without any karma attached to it.

Jain texts repeatedly suggest / preach that we must experience the nature and existence of soul. This is the only way to destroy delusion. Amŗta Candra writes:

Ayi kathamapi mŗtvā tatvakautūhali san,
Anubhava bhava mūrteħ pārśvavarti muhūrtam
Pŗathagadha vilsantaṅ svaṅ samālokya yena
Tyajasi jhagiti mūrtyā sākamekatvamoham ^[16]

I.e. Meditate upon self, stay contented with self and be focused on it; you will attain contentment and then bliss, Even Kunda Kunda has said the same at number of places in his texts.^[17]

Many spiritual texts of Jain say that one can never experience self with the aid of external media and the only way to experience is by meditating upon the knowledge attribute of the self.^[18] The practitioner who wishes to experience the self should think / contemplate that the entity which intuits and knows is me and everything else is non-self.^[19]

We can explain the process of experiencing the soul in simple and lucid terms as follows:

1. Acquire true and correct knowledge of soul and understand it properly.
   
   
2. Divert all wandering and external tendencies of sense organs and mind towards the inner self or soul i.e. from gross body to subtle body and then to soul.
   
   
3. Get rid of thoughts of attachment, aversion and just concentrate / meditate on the inner self.

10. Three types of soul: external, internal and supreme

Jain texts talk of three types of soul namely; external (bahirātmā), internal (antarātmā) and supreme (paramātmā).

1. External: The self that thinks that the body it owns is the soul is deluded and ignorant ^[20]
   
2. Internal: The self that understands its nature properly is with right vision and faith. ^[21]
   
3. Supreme: The self that is completely detached from external impurities and is omniscient. Supreme soul is of two types namely with physical body (known as Arhanta) and without physical body (known as Siddha).^[22]

Status as external soul is to be eliminated; that of internal soul is good and the status of supreme soul is the aim to be realized.

11. Summary

To conclude, we see that Jain philosophy has detailed spiritual and logical explanation of soul. Jain thinkers have proved the existence of soul, synonyms of soul, its types and sub types, nature of self, need to experience the self and detailed the ways to do so. There are infinite living beings in this cosmos and each one is soul/ self just for itself. Everyone can become supreme soul by giving up its status of external soul, moving to the status of internal soul and then meditating upon it. Once we achieve the status of supreme soul, then we can get out of the cycle of birth-death i.e. saṅsāra and enjoy our nature of knowledge and bliss (jñānāanda) forever.

12. Recommended books for further reading

Table 0.1 Soul / Jīva
Distinguishing quality: Sentient.
Number: Infinite

SOUL

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