Śramanācāra - The Code Of Conduct Of The Jaina Monk

1.0 Jainism is an Ascetic Religion.

The moral code of Jainism preaches asceticism to its extreme. The idea is that if spirit is something beyond senses, then all sensual pleasures must be only an obstacle in the realization of the soul. They, therefore, must be renounced. Once this principle is accepted, no concession is to be made in the name of practicability. Of course, this ideal cannot be achieved normally all at once. Therefore there are gradual stages of renunciation. A person who wishes to fulfil his social obligation cannot give up all worldly activities, but gradually as one realizes the importance of spiritual attainment and gains confidence and power, he proceeds towards the higher goal, leaving aside the material necessities of life. This journey leads to monkhood.

1.1 The Importance of Asceticism in Jainism

In the earlier scriptures of the Jainas, we find that the gospels are addressed mainly to monks. It means that Asceticism occupies the central place in Jainism. In Brahmanism on the other hand, householder occupies the central place. In later Hinduism, asceticism was accorded a place in the fourth stage of life under the āśrama scheme. In Jainism, ascetic character was retained from the very beginning till today. In Hinduism, also asceticism continued to occupy increasingly important place day by day. In the Mahābhārata, we find how a conflict was going on between the older religion of activity and the newer religion of renunciation. According to Bṛhad Kalpabhāṣya, even a śrāvaka is to be taught Yatidharama before śrāvaka dharma i.e. he is to be instructed in the life style of a monk first, so that he can know the ultimate goal of life. In Hinduism, action or karma preceded the study of jñāna or Vedānta. It appears that Hinduism was very much influenced by the ascetic tendencies of Jainism and Buddhism.

1.2 Asceticism and Society

Coming to asceticism of the Jain tradition, a Jain monk has to devote himself absolutely to spiritualism. No doubt, he depends on society for such bare necessity of life as food, but he is not obliged to fulfil any social duty. In fact, his contribution to the society is not mundane but spiritual. It is true that spiritualism plays an important role in regulating the social behavior in the sense that it puts a check on the bad activities of the members of the society. Morality is the first condition for all spiritual progress and the same morality is essential for any social progress. In this way, asceticism plays a role in guiding the society but its main object is spiritual realization. It is held that perfection lies in spiritualism and not in worldly progress. In a way, worldly pleasures are a hindrance to spiritual realization and, therefore, they cannot be recommended. The scriptures of the Vedic tradition, the Gītā for example appear to have a different view. They hold that worldly progress and spiritualism can go together. This is how Lokmanya Tilak interpreted Gītā. However, the interpretation of the Gītā by Śankara has an ascetic overtone. Thus, we find that though the Vedic tradition has been wavering regarding the importance of asceticism, the Jaina tradition is firm about its conviction. The influence of Jainism on Vedic tradition can be clearly seen in the description of the life style of Ŗṣabhadeva in the Bhāgawat Purāṇa.

2.0 Jaina Monk

The conduct of a Jaina monk is the highest example of asceticism. He is expected to practice in what he believes. Let us therefore, have a look at the code of a Jaina monk to understand how asceticism is to be put in practice. This forms a unique chapter of Indian civilization and of the history of asceticism as a whole.

2.1 Who Can Become a Monk?

A monk can practice spiritualism without any distinction of caste or colour. Harikeśī was a Pariah who was admitted to the order of monkhood and he is referred to with highest regard even though socially Pariah was considered to be belonging to the lowest cadre of the society. The conditions laid down for a person for qualifying for initiation for monk-hood are such, which do not discriminate between person and person on the basis of cast. One must be above the age of 8, should not be too old, should be physically and mentally fit and should not have any such social obligation as debt. The main emphasis is on moral qualities. On the whole we can say that any person who is physically fit and morally sound can be admitted to monkhood.

3. 0 Two Types of Monks

In Śvetāmbara tradition those monks who observed more strict code of conduct, form a separate category called Jinakalpī(i.e. who live like Lord Mahāvīra); whereas those, who are not so strict, are called Sthavirakalpa. Jinakalpīis supposed to be not in vogue in modern times. Sthavirakalpa observes not only the moral code but also the rules, which are prescribed by the Order. This kind of distinction is available in Vedic tradition also, where Paramhans or Turiyatita monks are distinguished from ordinary type of ascetics. It only means that even among ascetics we have gradation of higher and lower type. However, there are some qualities, which are to be observed by all ascetics. For example all ascetic should observe five great vows (mahāvratas); must have an attitude of restraint and practice the same (samitis); must observe mental vocal and physical discipline (gūptis); should have control over their senses, must lead a life of austerity, should have control over their food habits, and should be detached, full of forgiveness and forbearance. Let us have a description of some of these qualities in some detail so as to understand the heart of asceticism with special reference to Jainism.

3.1 Five Great Vows Mahāvratas

The five great vows form the foundation of the Jaina tradition. They are called great because they are to be observed without any exception whereas in the small vows of the householder, a concession is given, so that he can fulfil his obligation towards his family and society. The great vows on the other hand are unconditional and absolute. There have been some modifications in the details of these five great vows but the basic structure has remained intact through ages.

The first great vow is the vow of non- violence Āhiṅsā, which consists in abstinence from injury in any form and in any condition to any living being, small or great, inferior or superior. As Jainism believes that not only man and animals and all vegetable but even fire, air, water and earth have life, and a monk is supposed to lead a life, which does not interfere, with life as such. This makes his movement very much restricted. He cannot touch fire or water or cannot dig earth or cannot use fan. Naturally, this makes his life full of hardships for example, if he is thirsty, he cannot drink water of any kind but only that water which has become inanimate through such procedure as boiling. He cannot take even boiled water if it has been boiled for him. He can take only that water which a householder might have boiled for himself and is willing to share that water with the monk by remaining satisfied with only that quantity of water, which remains after offering that water to the monk. It is clear that in this way a monk becomes so much dependent on the householders that he cannot have any sense of ego or pride. By this sort of conduct, he becomes instrumental in extending asceticism to a smaller degree amongst the householders also who has to limit his requirements if he wishes to fulfil the requirements of the monk.

3.1.1 Detachment

The core of non–violence is detachment and compassion. Compassion does not consist in fulfilling the demands of the flesh but in inspiring one to get rid of demands of flesh. Attachment is suicidal for the aspirant. All behavior of a Jaina monk regarding movement, speech, handling of things, food, and even thinking is regulated by this one spiritual value of detachment. Non-violence implies strict vigilance. In the scripture it is mentioned that when a straw was placed in the ear of a sleeping monk Āryadeva, he removed it so carefully that if it were not a straw, but a worm, it would not be hurt. He did it very gently.

3.1.2 The Scope of Non-Violence Āhiṅsā

It is said that of all the vows the Jaina attached the greatest importance to non–violence. Non-violence is not a philosophy of inactivity but a philosophy, which values the life of all and does not like interfering in the freedom of any living being. It goes beyond mere humanitarian but encompasses the whole nature. Today when we are worried about environment, the Jaina concept of non-violence becomes very relevant because it preaches non–disturbance of the balance of nature. For Jainism, nature is not something that can be handled in any way, it is rather throbbing with life and has to be handled with kindness. Jainism has also analyzed the causes of violence. In fact, the cause of all sins lies in our passions, which include anger, greed hypocrisy and pride. It is not that the Jaina monk gives up all activities; he gives up only violent activities. Of course, he practices Āhiṅsā to the last degree and therefore, his activities become very much restricted. But his spiritual activities extend to the largest degree possible. When we look at non-violence from social point of view the Jaina concept of non-violence may appear to be incomplete. The Jaina monk, for example will not resort to violence even if he is attacked. The social being, on the other hand, would like to reserve the right of self-defence. We have to understand that since a monk has given himself to absolute spiritualism; even defence of his own body at the cost of spiritualism is not advisable for him. His vow of non-violence is unconditional. He will not only be kind to those who are kind to him, but also to those, who are unkind to him also. He can do so because he is so much engrossed in the spiritual bliss of his inner self that physical miseries do not move him. He avoids violence mentally, physically and vocally. He also avoids inspiring others to commit violence and if somebody has committed violence he avoids approving of it.

3.2 The Vow of Truthfulness Satya

The second vow is that of truthfulness. No false word is to be uttered out of attachment, aversion, fear or anger or greed. For this purpose, he has to avoid insulting, teasing and use of harsh words. He should not use speech, which excites others. He should not only be true, but modest and gentle in his speech. The example of wearing the outfit of a non-Jaina monk to get food and drink is also quoted as an example of falsehood.

3.3 The Vow of Non-Stealing Acaurya

The vow of non-stealing is much more comprehensive than what we normally understand by the term. Even if something is lying in the house of a householder and monk finds that it is of no use for the owner of the house, he cannot take it without the express permission of the owner. He can neither show any attraction of benefit to a householder to get something from him nor use either fear for this purpose. He should have detachment even to whatever little he has. He cannot claim any ownership of the place in which he is staying. He should gladly share his possession with the fellow monks. He should not gather any requisite secretly. Thus the vow of non-stealing means perfect honesty in one’s behavior.

3.4 The Vow of Celibacy Bṛahmacarya

The fourth vow consists of celibacy or control of sexual desire. Under this vow he has not to decorate his body. He has to avoid exciting and excessive food, songs and dance, and exciting and passionate behavior. He has to avoid any contact, especially in private or on one to one basis with members of opposite sex. In case of any emergency, also the rule of the celibacy is to be observed in letter and spirit.

3.5 The Vow of Non-Possessiveness Aparigraha

The last and fifth vow is that of non-possession. As even a monk has to possess such instrument of acquiring knowledge as books, it cannot be said that he should not possess anything. It only means that whatever he possesses, he should have no attachment to it. Moreover, he should not possess anything, which is not allowed by the scriptures. There is a difference of opinion regarding the list of possession that a monk can have. This becomes the one article of the main reasons of division between the Digambara and the Śvetāmbara. It appears that the Śvetāmbara scriptures allowed very few items of clothe and utensils for a monk but the list increased by the passage of time. The Digambara on the other hand did not allow even a cloth for a monk. The Ācārāṅga Sutra though mentions clothes, alms-bowl, blanket and broom for the monk. The Digambara tradition classifies the possession of the monk under three heads:

• Means of attaining knowledge i.e. scriptures
• Means of observance of vows i.e. a broom of peacock feather by which one can gently remove insects etc. so that they are not injured by the movement of monk
• Means of purifying the body i.e. a pot of wood to carry inanimate water for cleaning the body after nature’s calls.

Later on, especially the Śvetāmbara scriptures increased the list of the possession of a monk to include such articles as a staff and an umbrella, even though, in practice, the monks do not have them today. The list went on increasing by including needle, razor, nail cutter and ear cleaner etc. Bṛhatkalpsūtra gives in as many as seventy articles as possession of a monk. In latter period it appears that the monks accepted even gifts of land. The rules were, however, so clear and strict that such practices which were against the spirit of the vow could not continue for long.

3.5.1 The Importance of Non-Possessiveness

It is important that possessions are not only external but internal also. The Jaina scriptures include laughter, liking and disliking, sorrow, fear and disgust as internal possessions. Even though non-violence is considered to be the cardinal moral virtue, yet the greatest contribution of the Jainas to asceticism is the vow of non-possession, which they carried to such an extreme that the Digambara monks do not keep any cloth to cover even their body. Why there is so much insistence on non-possessiveness is explained by the fact that almost all sins emerge out of the desire to possess. There is struggle and violence for usurping the belongings of others so that one can enjoy them. One resorts to falsehood and thefts for becoming rich. Detachment must be translated into practice by not accumulating things beyond a limit. In fact, a householder is also expected to put a limit on his possession and as he enters monkhood he becomes all the more rigid and does only with the bare minimum.

3.6 Observing Other Attitudes to Support the Observance of the Five Great Vows

The deepest form of attachment is found towards body. Asceticism therefore, culminates into not only refusing the body any comfort or luxury but also voluntary accepting situations which are not favorable to the body. We shall discuss austerities in a separate lesson. As a means to protect the above five great vows a monk is supposed to observe three fold self control (gupti) and five fold vigilance (samiti). In self-control, one is to avoid all harmful activities where as in vigilance one has to see to it that others are not injured by one’s activities.

3.6.1 Three–Fold Discipline Guptis

The discipline of mind means freedom from thought of passions, delusion, attachment, aversion, and other impure thoughts. The discipline of speech means avoiding talks about sex, politics, anti-social activities and food. Discipline of body means physical activities are to be avoided such as piercing or beating etc.

3.6.2 Five-Fold Vigilance Samitis

Of the five-fold vigilance; the first is regarding the movement. The monk should not traverse on the path where there are ants, seeds, vegetables etc. He should move only on a path, which is free from the chance of injuring any living being. He should move only in daylight, as, in the night, the path is not properly seen. He should not have any attraction towards the object of five senses while moving. He should move only for religious purposes. He should look forward on the ground to the extent of four cubits. The idea is that he should move only when it is necessary for religious purpose and that too with full vigilance.

The second is discipline of speech, whereas vigilance of speech means the positive aspect of using speech, which should be short, sweet and beneficial.

The third vigilance is regarding begging of food. One has to take food to keep his body. For a monk the purpose of life is to achieve the ultimate end of life i.e. liberation. He takes food only with this end in mind. Of course, he has to see that no violence is involved in the process of acquiring food. The food should not be prepared for him, nor should he suggest the type or quantity of food should be or approved by him. As already said, whatever little a monk gets in begging, it should be out of the things which the householder has prepared for himself. The householder shares this preparation voluntarily by putting control over his own share. The purpose of taking the food is to sustain life so that one can make study, meditate serve other monks and perform religious duties. Two parts of stomach are to be filled with food and one with water. And the fourth one is to be left for passage for air. The monk should not take food if he finds any impurity like nails, hair, insects, bones, chaff, grain particles, pus, skin, blood, flesh, seeds, fruits, bulbs and roots. A monk should not go out for food when he suffers from diseases or when some misery befalls him, or when he wants to defend his celibacy or when he wants to refrain from causing injury to living beings or when he is desirous of renouncing the body.

Whatever articles a monk has, he has to handle them carefully. He should remove insects from the place where he wants to put an article.  When a monk feels call of nature, he has to choose a place, which is, devoid of all life. Thus, we find that all the activities of a monk are to be regulated in accordance with the observance of the code of conduct.

4.0 Other Supporting Activities for Practicing Spiritual Purification

There are a number of activities detailed which the monk should practice regularly so that he develops detachment and practice non-violence to enable him o meditate on the self/soul.

4.1 Ten Fold Dharma

To strengthen the moral virtues a monk should have forgiveness, humility, straight forwards, contentment, truth, restraint, penance, renunciation, detachment, and celibacy. These qualities are excellent because they are to be cultivated with the purpose of spiritual development only and not with any worldly gain. These qualities come automatically to a monk if he is clear about his goal. The goal is to check the inflow of karmic matter, which is a foreign element and which pollutes the purity of soul.

4.2 Attitude Towards Hardships (22 Pariṣahas)

With such a strict code of conduct, it is but natural that a monk should face many hardships, which he is expected to overcome with detachment and forbearance. He should understand that the physical pains and pleasures are transitory in nature and they come and go. A worldly man tries to overcome such hardships by various means, which are not always free from sins. However, the monk has to face hardships with fortitude. He should not feel disturbed at all. It increases his will power, so necessary for treading the path of asceticism.

The monk has to deny comforts to the body. The hardships which he may face, are 22 in number: hunger, thirst, cold, heat, insect bites, nakedness, discontentment, woman, fatigue from walking etc., disturbance by animals, sleeping or sitting on hard earth, abuse, beating, begging failure to get alms, etc., disease, contact of thorny shrubs, etc., discomfort from dirt, respectful or disrespectful treatment, pride of knowledge, lack of knowledge and failures in religious practices. The idea behind the above hardships is that whatever the circumstances the monk should not deviate from his prescribed code of conduct which includes rules for begging food, observance of religious duties, non possessiveness, non violence, sex control, detachment, freedom from greed, freedom from attachment to body, non despondency and stead fastness. All this proves to be of great help in checking the inflow of karmic matter and also shedding of the already acquired karmic matter. Penance means voluntarily imposing on oneself circumstances, which are physically unfavourable. We shall speak about them in a separate lesson. Here we have dealt with only with the unfavorable circumstances, which a monk may have to face involuntarily.

4.3 Six-Fold Essentials Āvaśyakas

In his daily life the monk has to perform certain essential duties. The first of them is Sāmāyika. It is the most important quality, which means equanimity in life and death, profit and loss, union and separation, friend and foe, and happiness and misery. A monk has not to make any distinction between one who belongs to him and the other who does not belong to him. Detachment, faith in scriptures, abstention from vices, three-fold self control and all other moral virtues along with meditation, form Sāmāyika. One should be detached from good or bad names, forms, material, place, time, or emotion.

Those realized souls have attained perfection by destroying desire, conquering the passions and death with equanimity. It is true that the realized souls who have attained liberation do not answer to our prayers in the way in which God is supposed to answer, but our prayer to them purifies us.

The second duty is that of paying respect to the preceptor and the images of Arihaṅtas. In fact a monk pays respect to those who observes vows and not to those who are undisciplined even though they may occupy high position in the worldly sense of the term.

The third duty is to criticize one’s moral transgression by confessing them before one’s Gūrū. One should not conceal anything from his Gūrū. He should be free from crookedness and observe balance of minds in all situations. Another essential quality is to avoid sinful activities in future. The monk should be sorry for whatever sinful activities may have been performed by him in the past.

Another duty is to feel detachment from the body.

4.4 Rules for Begging Food

The Jain scriptures understand that the food is the most fundamental necessity of human life. Even this necessity is to be reduced to the minimum. As he has to go for begging, he should put the householder to the least possible difficulty. Food is to be taken for maintenance of body and not for the taste of the tongue. In fact, the earlier scriptures are full of prescriptions regarding food. The faults, which may occur in procuring food, are classified into four categories.

4.4.1 The First Category of Faults

The mistakes on the part of the giver are sixteen in number. The monk should not accept food:

1. If it is specially prepared for him;
2. If some additional food or new item has been cooked on seeing him;
3. If he uses sterilizes food and it has been mixed with unsterilized food or water;
4. If he is asked to take the food together with layman;
5. If the food is offered to him after being removed from the place of its preparation;
6. If the food is remnant of offerings;
7. If the food is offered at wrong time;
8. If pots containing food are removed from one place to another at the sight of himself, if pots are washed before him or a lamp is lit;
9. If the food has been purchased for him;
10. If the food has been borrowed for him;
11. If the food has been obtained in exchange for some other article;
12. If the food has been brought from another’s house;
13. If the food has been kept uncovered;
14. If the food is offered at a place where he can reach only by mounting a ladder;
15. If the food is offered out of fear;
16. If someone has objected to the offering of food;

4.4.2 The Second Category of Faults

The following sixteen faults pertain to the receiver and should be avoided by the monk. The food becomes condemnable:

1. If it is achieved by teaching the giver the way of looking after the children
2. If it is obtained by delivering some message
3. If it is obtained by telling someone about his future, etc.
4. If it is obtained by describing one’s high linkage or occupation
5. If it is obtained by flattering the giver
6. If it is obtained by giving medical advice or medicine
7. By showing anger
8. By showing pride
9. By deceit
10. By showing greed
11. By praising the giver in anticipation
12. By praising the giver afterwards
13. By imparting occult powers
14. By imparting mantras for snake-bite etc
15. By imparting secrets for winning over one’s love
16. By imparting implements (crème / oils /powders etc) to enhance the beauty of body (eyes, face etc).

4.4.3 The Third Category of Faults

It consists of the following ten faults concerning the manner of giving. The food becomes condemnable:

1. If there is any doubt about its purity
2. If it is offered by hands or in utensils which are besmeared with oil or ghee
3. If it has been placed on unsterilized water or green leaves
4. If it is covered with unsterilized water or green leaves
5. If the pots are not handled carefully by the giver
6. If it is unclean
7. If it is mixed with earth, insects or unsterilized things
8. If it is not sterilized so as to make it incapable of breeding any living creature
9. If it is offered from pots or hands besmeared with flour, chalk, and the like
10. If it has been thrown away

4.4.4 The Fourth Category of Faults

While taking the food, the monk should be free from the following four faults:

1. Mixing up hot things with cold, which have ceased to be sterilized
2. Over-eating
3. Having attachment to food
4. Condemning food while eating it

5.0 The Ascetic Order: The Role of Ācārya

Though asceticism in its pure form is an individual’s journey, yet the Jaina tradition avoids absolutism in any fields. Therefore, the Jaina monks have a community of their own where they help each other for spiritual development. Of course, monks of a very high order have been allowed to remain aloof but ordinarily a monk is expected to be a member of Saṅgha of which a Ācārya as its head. The Ācārya organizes and regulates all spiritual activities of the Saṅgha. He has the following duties:

1. Sutrārthasthirikaraṇa – Decide the meaning of the scriptures
2. Vinaya – Should be humble to all
3. Gurupujā– Should be reverential to those who are senior to him in spiritual development
4. Saiksābahumāna – Should show respect for the aspirants of spirituality
5. Dānapatisraddāvrddhi – Encourage the giver to give alms
6. Buddhibalavardhana - Enhance the intellect and capacity of his students

Besides, the Ācārya should also keep in mind the following things:

1. He should be careful in giving any order
2. He should see that the junior monks behave properly towards senior monks
3. He should see that the order of reading the scriptures is not violated by the monks
4. He should provide proper facilities for those monks who are either diseased or engaged in penance for studies
5. He should do everything in consultation with other monks
6. He should see that every monk gets the equipment that he requires
7. He should also take care of the equipments of monks

5.1 Rules of Behavior Towards Fellow Monks

In an Order, it is necessary that rule of conduct which prescribe behavior amongst the member of the Order are followed. For the sake of chastity, monks and nuns are not allowed to touch each other.

The society of monks is guided by what is called Sambhoga. The rules of Sambhoga are twelve in number:

1. Upādhisambhoga - The possessions of a monk are called Upādhi. The monks should exchange these Upādhis with other monks with care.
2. Srutasambhoga – The monk should instruct other monks with regard to the scriptures.
3. Bhaktapāna – The food given to other monks should be pure.
4. Ajjalipragraha – The monk should pay due respect to other monks.
5. Dānasambhoga - Pupils can be exchanged with the other monks of the same group.
6. Nimantraṇa – A monk can invite another monk of the same group for exchange of food, possessions and pupils.
7. Abhyutthāna - The monk should pay due respect to other monks of the same group by giving them seat etc., and by standing from his seat on their arrival.
8. Krtikarma - Should give proper salutation etc.
9. Vaiyyāvrtya – The old, diseased, and disabled monks should be served with due respect and care.
10. Samavasaraṇa – He should join the assembly at the time of religious discourse.
11. Sannisadya – The monk can share his seat with the monk of his own group but not with the nun.
12. Kathā– Prabandha – He should discuss various religious matters with fellow monks.

The order is thus an organized form of asceticism but the primary form of asceticism is to be practiced by an individual all- alone even when he is a member of an Order.

5.2 Twelve Reflections

The practice of asceticism is not a bed on roses. It is a very difficult path. What sustains an aspirant on this path are certain reflections, which have been classified into twelve:

1. The first is the transitory nature of things. Nothing is permanent in the world. If we get attached to a particular thing we are bound to suffer.
2. Nobody can escape death, nor can anybody save one from death. It is, therefore, unwise to depend on relatives, wealth, or position because all of them are helpless before death.
3. The soul is transmigrating from one body to another body from time immemorial. It has undergone all possible favorable and unfavorable situations. There is no end to this journey unless one adopts the path of spiritualism.
4. Even though we live in a society speaking truly, we are all alone. We have to suffer the miseries all alone and there is none to share them.
5. One has to realize that the self is distinct from body. Pampering the body is of no use for the self.
6. The body, which consists of flesh, blood, and bones is impure all in and all out.
7. The universe is very huge and the man is so small that he has no point in being proud of himself.
8. It is a very rare chance that one gets the knowledge of right path. Once it is attained one should not miss this rare chance.
9. Because of our activities, there is constant inflow of karma, which covers our true nature.
10. This inflow of karma is to be stopped if we want to protect our purity.
11. The already accumulated karmas are to be shed.
12. The real nature of truth is to be realized.

With these reflections, the monk becomes steadfast in asceticism.

6.0 Summary

From the aforesaid description of the conduct of a Jaina monk, it would be clear that asceticism is a form of pure spiritualism, which does not admit of any concession for worldly life. There is a contradiction between the spiritual life and mundane life, which is clearly brought out by what has been said above. The goal of asceticism is spiritual realization, for which an aspirant has to forsake physical comforts and undergo hardships.

The institution of Order of Jaina Monk is perhaps the oldest Order of the world. Its study is an important chapter in the history of asceticism. It may also be pointed out that even though the journey of spiritualism is individualistic yet the Jaina Tīrthaṅkaras laid down the foundation of an order where the aspirants could help each other without interfering in their freedom. This is perhaps the secret of longevity of Jaina asceticism.

Suggested Readings

1. Sogani Kamal Chand, Ethical Doctrines in Jainism, Pub.: Lalchand Hirachand Doshi, Solapur.
2. Bhargava D., Jain Ethics, Pub.: Motilal Banarsi Das, New Delhi.
3. S.B. Deo, History of Jain Monachism, Puna.
4. B.C. Law, Mahaveer, his life and teachings, London.
5. H.L. Jain, Bharatiya Sanskrit Men Jaina Dharma Ka Yogadana, Bhopal.
6. Acharya Mahapragya:, Jain Darshan: Manan Mimansa, Ladnun

Questions:

1. What is the position of a Jain Monk vis-à-vis a Jain householder?
2. What are the conditions of eligibility for a Jain Monk?
3. What is the difference between great vows and small vows?
4. What is the importance of non- possessiveness?
5. What is the meaning of self-control and vigilance in the case of a Jain Monk?
6. What is the spirit of rules for begging food for a Jain Monk?
7. What are the common rules of an order of the Jain Monks?

Annexure 1

28 Mulagunas (According to the Digambaras) of Monks

 27 Mulaganas (According to the Śvetāmbaras) of Monks

22 Parīṣaha (Hurdles or Afflictions) to be won over by Monks: