Compendium of Jainism: XVI ►Ethics For Ascetics

Human birth on earth is difficult to obtain. When once it is obtained, our aim should be to utilize the opportunity for spiritual advancement by the annihilation of Karmas, rather than for mechanical and material enjoyment of all pleasures of the senses which our wealth, position or power can place at our command. In the previous chapter, there is brief survey of the eleven stages (pratimās) of progress as laid down for a house-holder; it lays down a graduated scheme of elevation leading to the path of renunciation. It is no doubt true that the rules laid down for Perfect Conduct are hard and arduous; but they are a preparation for the life of an ascetic if one can reach the highest stage. "A time does come, and will come, in the life of everyone who is impressed with the Right Faith, when he will not be able to restrain himself from adopting them. Till that time does come there is no compulsion of any kind whatsoever, and one need only undergo as much of the disciplinary trading as one likes."^[1]

The march from the stage of a house-holder to reach the stage of an ascetic involves complete detachment from mundane affairs and severance of all connections with the kith and kin, having achieved victory over the senses and the mind. At the end, permeating his mind with five types of ascetic discipline namely, Jñānācāra, Darśanācāra, Cāritrācāra, Tapācāra and Viryācāra, he prostrates before a great saint who is adorned with mystic characteristics, who abounds in virtues, who is associated with a family of distinction, who possesses an attractive physical form, who is endowed with mature age, who is bereft of mental insobriety and who is honoured and extolled by other saints. He then beseeches him to initiate."^[2]

A person is thus initiated as an ascetic and with his initiation, he becomes naked, pulls out his hair with his own hands and commences practising the great vows and austerities. Jainism Jays great emphasis on internal purity, as impurity of the soul even in the slightest degree retards its progress. Therefore, the vows and austerities which an ascetic had been observing as a house­holder are required to be practised with full faith and utmost firmness. He must possess and practise 28 basic qualities or Mūla-guṇas. They are: The five great vows of

1. Ahiṁsā,
2. Satya or truthfulness,
3. Asteya or honesty,
4. Brahma-carya or celibacy,
5. A parigraha or non-possessiveness, the five Samitis (great care):
6. carefulness in walking,
7. care­fulness in speaking,
8. carefulness in receiving alms,
9. care­fulness in keeping things on the ground or lifting them,
10. care­fulness in the choice of place for answering calls of nature. Then he has to control the five senses of
11. touch,
12. taste,
13. smell,
14. seeing, and
15. hearing. Besides, he has to observe the six essential duties;
16. repentance,
17. renunci­ation,
18. confession,
19. expiation,
20. non-attachment to the body,
21. contemplation during fixed hours every day regularly. Besides, there are seven external observances:
22. removal of hair with one's own hands periodically,
23. nake­dness,
24. no bathing,
25. non-cleansing of teeth,
26. taking food while standing,
27. only one meal a day and
28. sleeping on bare ground.

An ascetic takes precautions not to violate these Mūlaguṇas; and in case he violates them, he duly approaches his teacher, reports and confesses the sin, and adopts the lustral course. Negligence is his greatest enemy, so he keeps himself constantly alert. Not only he has no attachments at all, but he is absolutely indifferent to the world and its allurements……. His eye is on liberation; so he constantly struggles to maintain a pure attitude of mind, and cultivates faith, knowledge and discipline. His preachings and his other activities are all directed towards spiritual advancement. Being a Nirgrantha, he practises no profe­ssion. The rigorous type of Nirgrantha asceticism is not prescribed for women because of their natural disabilities. They can enter the order but their observances are moderate and less rigorous.^[3]

The five Vratas namely, ahiṁsā, satya, asteya, brahmacarya and aparigraha which a house-holder observes in a small way are required to be observed with the fullest of their implications without permitting any of the transgressions noticed earlier while discussing the Paṅca-aṇuvratas. It is not enough if an ascetic abstains from physical injury to any mobile or immobile living creatures; he must observe the vow in mind, speech and action (conduct) so that he exhibits the highest degree of caution and care in his movements, thoughts, food and drinks. The vow of truthfulness requires him to be free from anger, greed, fear and delusion so that anything he utters is free from the taint of impurity of any kind. The vow of Asteya or non-stealing has to be observed not only by refraining from acceptance of what is not given but also by observing the self-imposed limitations in the matter of begging for food, acceptance of food and drink of great purity in quantities lesser than he needs and in the choice of his abode which ought to be in any forest or secluded place. The vow of celibacy does not stop with abstinence from sexual inter­course. He must not entertain any thought of sex or passion. He should not take any food which is likely to incite his passion; he should not think of any woman nor give any cause by talk or gesture so as to excite passion in himself or in the woman. He should not try to relive his past sexual contacts. Aparigraha or non-attachment does not only mean non-attachment to external objects and property but includes non-attachment to the body or its requirements. He must annihilate his desires and should attach no greater importance to the body than to regard it as an instrument for practice of Dharma and realisation of the three Jewels. Even the three articles which he is permitted to possess viz., a book: (jñānopādhi) a peacock-feather hunch (saṁyamopādhi) and a pot for water normally made of wood (śaucopādhi), should have no attraction for him. la short, he should have an attitude of non-attachment, complete and thorough, both for sentient and non-sentient objects.

Besides the five Mahāvratas whose full and comprehensive amplitude has been indicated while discussing the five aṇuvratas, he must observe the five kinds of careful behaviour (samitis). These are intended to train his mind and conduct so that they shall be in conformity with his other vows. They are:

1. Īrya-samiti is going by paths trodden by men, beasts, carts etc., and looking to the ground carefully while walking so as not to occasion the death of any living being.
2. Bhāṣā-samaiti consists in gentle, salutary, sweet, righteous speech;
3. Eṣāṇa-samiti means receiving alms in a manner to avoid the forty-two faults that are laid down.
4. Adana-samiti consists in receiving and keeping of things necessary for religious exercises, after having carefully examined them;
5. Utsarga-samiti requires performance of the operations of nature (that is, nature's calls) in an unfrequented place.^[4]

Jacobi has called the five samitis and three guptis as the eight articles of creed (pravacana-matrkas) as they are intended to inculcate self-restraint which is so essential for subjugation of passions and for spiritual development. The observance of the samitis ensures regulation of movements with utmost carefulness and helps one to avoid injury to organisms.

The walking of a welt -disciplined monk should be pure in four respects: the cause, the time, the road and the effort. The cause is: knowledge, faith and right conduct, implying thereby that his walking should have a purpose and be guided by considerations of furthering the acquisition of the three Jewels. -He shall neither walk aimlessly nor carelessly. The time of his walk is day-time only. The road that he chooses must be well-trodden excluding all bad roads with grass and other vegetable growth on it. With regard to the effort, the monk should look ahead to a distance of four hands as long as he walks. While paying attention to his walk, he should avoid anger, pride, deceit, greed, laughter, fear, loquacity and slander. He should use blameless and concise speech. When he hoes out for his food, he should avoid faults in the search and receiving of his food, articles of use and lodging. Faults with regard to the food refer to it having been prepared solely for the monk, containing impurities or prepared for festivity, use of lamp in fetching food, etc.^[5] In the selection of a place for his excrements, urine etc., he must choose a place which is neither frequented nor seen by people, which offers no obstacles to his self-control, which is not covered with grass or leaves and which is an inanimate spacious layer, free from insects and seeds. It would thus be evident that the samitis are an exercise in care­fulness and regulation of every kind of movement so as to avoid every kind of injury to other beings.

Gupti is defined as control curbing well every kind of activity (samyag yoganigraho guptiḥ).^[6] The Guptis are three: Mano-gupti, vāg-gupti and kaya-gupti. The first relates to the control of the mind by preventing it from wandering into the forest of sensual pleasures. A monk ought to restrain his mind and should never entertain thoughts that would bring misfortune to other beings or cause ruination of other people. The second requires him to control his speech from lying or telling mixed falsehood. He should not use 'abusive language or language that is likely to be harmful to others. He should observe silence and should not say anything ill about others. In the use of his body, he ought to be careful while standing, moving or lying down so that he does not cause misery to or destruction of any creature. There should be no room for evil actions, thoughts or bodily activity all the activities of a monk ought to be for the good of himself and of others.

We next come the control of the five senses of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing. There is a constant conflict between the dictates of the soul and of the senses. If we yield to the latter, they bring about transmigration while if we yield to the former, we move towards liberation. Yogindudeva has most effectively illustrated how submission to one sense or the other leads to destruction. A beautiful butterfly which is attracted by the beauty of a light from a lamp embraces and dies. A stag which is attracted by sound caused by a hunter falls a prey to his arrow and dies. An elephant which desires to have cold touch falls into a pond and is relegated to slavery. A bee which is attracted by- smell of a lotus is caught into it and dies when the lotus closes at sunset. A fish which is drawn towards the delicious bait thrown by a fisherman tries to snatch it and is caught. Thus the different senses, if not controlled by self-restraint, would toll the death knell without any hope of liberation. That is why an ascetic ought to exercise the fullest control over his senses. An ascetic ought to refuse to be seduced by his senses since he knows that none of his senses leads to the liberation of his soul. Neither beauty, nor musical sounds, nor fragrance nor sweetness as felt by his ears, nose or tongue, nor the softness of touch which are all pudgala should be allowed to dominate his practice of austerities.

The six āvaśyakas or the essential duties, which have a bearing on the advancement of the spiritual well-being of the soul, ought to be performed every day without fail. They constantly remind the ascetic of his goal in life and purify the inner self Kundakunda Acarya has enumerated them as follows in his "Niya- masāra": pratikramaṇa, pratyākhyāna, Ālōkanā kāyōtsarga sāmāyika and paramabhakti.

1. Pratikramaṇa is repentance. Self-analysis or introspection is essential for equanimity of mind and for right conduct. That man observes Pratikramaṇa, who in silence after abstaining from the activities of speech and getting rid of his impure thought- activities such as anger, attachments etc., meditates upon the nature of his own soul. This helps him to avoid repetition of impure thought-activities an 1 transgressions of rules of conduct. He would avoid all wrong paths and walk into the paths shown by the Conquerors. He learns how to control himself in body, thought and speech, he entertains only righteous thoughts avoiding all painful and evil thought activities. Thus renouncing all ways of evil thoughts, he acquires Right Faith and Right Conduct. He learns about the supremacy of the soul and engages himself in self-concentration. In short, he recounts, his lapses and trans­gressions of the rules of righteous conduct and thoughts committed during the day and directs the pure thought-activities of his soul towards concentration and realisation of the pure self.^[7]
2. Pratyākhyāna is renunciation from all worldly thoughts. He frees himself from all passions, bravely meets all temptations, and keeps himself away from inauspicious thoughts that are the cause of transmigration. It signifies a firm determination to avoid the pitfalls of evil Karmas. In real renunciation, the soul takes shelter in the pure nature of one's own self and is not allowed to be obsessed by any other idea which does not relate to itself. In this kind of renunciation, a saint realises himself to be all-knowing, all-powerful and all-blissful. He himself becomes pure conscious­ness personified.^[8]
3. Ālōkanā is confession which consists in the saint medi­tating upon his own soul being free from quasi Karmas no- Karmas and Karmas, and devoid of the non-natural attributes and modifications which attend normally a worldly soul.^[9] Confession is of four kinds: Ālōkanā, āluñcana (eradication), avikṛtikarana (non-deformity), and bhāvaśuddhi (purity of thought). Ālōkanā is achieving equanimity to realise the soul. Āluñcana or eradication is acquisition of capacity to eradicate all Karmas. He who realises his soul by acquisition of its attributes and equanimity by shedding off of the Karmas is said to practise Avikṛtikarana or non-deformity. Bhāvaśuddhi or purity of thought is acquired by conquest of lust, pride, deceit and greed. It is only by the practice of these four kinds of confessions that a saint can achieve real spiritual progress and attain liberation from bondage of the Karmas.
4. Prāyaśchitta or expiation consists in the observance of the five vows, the five kinds of carefulness, self-control and attentive" ness to the restraints of senses. Real expiation however consists in the contemplation of the soul by destruction of all kinds of impurities of mind and thoughts, and meditation of attributes of the soul.^[10] A saint should conquer anger by forgiveness, pride by humility, deceit by straightforwardness and greed by content­ment. A faultless observance of the austerities is part of expiation The main object of practising expiation is to reduce or eradicate defects in the observance of all vows and austerities so that there could be complete stoppage of conduct-deluding Karmas defiling the soul. A saint is expected to approach his Guru, frankly-confess to him and sins and transgressions committed by him, and atone willingly for his past sins by suffering such punishment as may be proposed by him (the Guru).
5. Kāyotsarga signifies a formal non-attachment to the body for the prescribed period of time. The bodily organs are required to be without any movent at the time of Kayotsarga. He, who is possessed of pure thoughts, has conquered his sleep, is well-versed in the religious scriptures and has acquired the physical stregnth and spiritual energy, can practise Kayotsarga which will conduce to his well-being on the spiritual journey.^[11] Sāmāyika which is one of the disciplinary vows is an essential daily practice. It requires a saint to devote fixed hours of the day, that is, morning, noon and evening for contemplation of the self for spiritual advancement. It means an incessant continuance of the placid and unruffled frame of mind in the midst of life and death, loss and gain, pleasant and unpleasant events, friends and foes, pleasures and pain.^[12] In the life of a householder Sāmāyika has a place in his daily life but in the case of an ascetic, it is of great value as supplementing his other austerities. It keeps him away from evil thoughts of every kind and enhances his peace of mind which is the backbone of sound meditation.
6. Paramabhakti is the combination of Stuti and Vandana. It requires an ascetic to practise devotion to the spiritual characteristics of the Jinas by offering salutation with simultaneous prayers of the attributes so that his understanding of qualities of the soul might become clearer and his own life more spiritualistic. He gains more spiritual knowledge and becomes well-disciplined in his practices.

The other Mūlaguṇas relate to certain external observances Nakedness is one of the conditions of a Digambara saint. Sogani has referred to some scriptural sources to say that nudity is prescribed in Śvetāmbara texts as well, but the commentators say that it is learnt from Jinakalpi monks. Despite the constant references regarding nudity in Śvetāmbara texts the rules of clothing are found in them but they are not required to be parti­cular about them.^[13] A saint should neither take his bath nor cleanse his teeth. He must sleep on the ground or a wooden plank. He has to lake his food only once in a day standing and that too in the plan of his hands. He has to remove his hair with his own hands. A Śvetāmbara monk uses a pot for taking his food and a wooden plank to sleep upon. According to sects and regions there are minor differences in receiving and taking food etc.

Besides observing these basic qualities, he ha-s to bear patiently all the afflictions that face a wandering monk so that he does not swerve from the path of stoppage of Karmas and is able to annihilate them. These afflictions or hardships (parīṣahas are twenty-two:

1. Hunger (Kṣudhā)
2. thrist (Pipāsā)
3. cold (śīta),
4. heat (Uṣṇa),
5. insect-bite (daṅśamaśaka),
6. nakedness (nāgnya),
7. absence of pleasures (arati),
8. woman (strī),
9. tired-feeling from roaming (carya),
10. discomfort of continuous sitting (nisadyā),
11. discomfort in sleeping (śayyā),
12. censure and scolding (Ākrośa),
13. injury (vadha)
14. begging (Yācanā),
15. failure to get food (Alābha),
16. Disease (roga).
17. pricking of blades of grass (tṛṇasparśa),
18. dirt (mala),
19. reception and honouring (satkāra-puraskāra),
20. conscious­ness of intelligence (jnana),
21. conciousness of ignorance (Ajñāna) and
22. lack of faith (Ādarśana).^[14]

There is no need of any explanation about the first five hardships as their implications are clear. Nakedness is dispensed with by people who are ignorant of the importance and practice of that vow. An ascetic has to face ridicule and abuses of other people. He is indifferent to pleasures and pain; this is possible only when he conquers his sense of dissatisfaction arising out of self-denial of all kinds of sensual pleasures. He has to conquer all sense of excitement or passionate thoughts that are likely to arise at the sight of lovely or attractive women. He has to move barefooted from place to place involving pain and discomfort. He has to endure all these effects of continuous wandering. He has to sit during the day almost in the same posture and certain discomfort is quite natural. Similarly he has to sleep on hard ground without movement, sometimes suffering insect-bites. These are to be borne as natural to the life of an ascetic. During his wanderings, he has to face hatred, jeers and anger from people who do not like a naked monk moving freely along the roads in cities and villages. He has to bear all these without show of anger or dislike and overcome censure or hatred with self-restraint. Sometimes, a monk is beaten or pelted with stones; he has to suffer the injuries with patience thinking them to be due to his own past Karmas without blaming mischief-mongers. He has to beg for his food only according to rules; but if he does not get food, he cannot resort to pitiful begging or plead for mercy. He has merely to endure the consequences. It is natural that as a human being he is subject to diseases and ailments. He has to endure the pain caused by thorns and pebbles while wandering. Since he should have no attachment or love for his body, he must patiently bear all these afflictions. He does not take bath at any time and has merely to shake off the dust if any with his bunch of peacock feathers. His main aim is to purify his soul and keep his mind free from every kind of defilement.

He is indifferent to praise or cold reception. He does not become elated by the grandeur of welcome nor disappointed by the indifference of people. He is not proud of his learning nor disheartened by his ignorance. His life is one of quiet pilgrimage for liberation. He studies the scriptures, delivers discourses, indulges in self-analysis and repents for his lapses, if any. He lives a life of supreme detachment and is always intent on the spiritual progress of his soul. He wards off fall obstacles silently and marches on with his magnanimous indifference to worldly happenings, with the sole object of stopping the influx of fresh Karmas and trying to annihilate the old ones. He does not allow his faith in the perfect nature of his soul to be affected by passing considerations and goes on endeavouring all hardships with patience and smile to reach higher stages of self-realisation. With his self-restraint and self-knowledge, he does not allow the purity of his soul and equanimity of his mind to be disturbed in any manner. The afflictions are beyond his control and have therefore to be endured as inherent in the process of self-purification.

The qualities that ought to be possessed by an ascetic have been referred to by Āśādhara in his comprehensive treatise on the subject of Anagāra-dharma or the ''Religion of the House­less". He has referred to the fact that in the Kali Yuga (the present cycle of time) there are many ascetics who preach many wrong principles of religion which do not conduce to the wellbeing of their audience. There is nothing in their expositions that shows the way to salvation; they are showy and have little regard for the spiritual progress of their followers.

He has explained the term 'nirgrantha'. Thoughts of mundane life which enhance wrong perception (mithyātva) constitute 'granthi'; he who has completely eliminated shuch thoughts from his mind is called a Nirgrantha. He follows five kinds of conduct: Darśanācāra, Jñānācāra, Cāritrācāra, Tapācāra and Viryācāra; he also persuades his disciples to follow them. He masters the scriptures by constant and gradual studies and is endowed with following ten special qualities. He is constantly engaged in doing good to others and in expounding the doctrines both from the points of reality and popular view.

The following ten qualities have been referred to by Āśādhara.^[15]

1) He has to observe the three guptis and the five samitis; the three guptis have already been discussed as having reference to control of mind, speech and body as also the five kinds of careful behaviour (samitis) in the use of trodden path, gentle speech, receipt of alms avoiding forty-two faults, in receiving and keeping things on the ground and in the performance of operations of nature.

2) Studying and memorising the four kinds of scriptures (āmnāya) consisting of

1. Prathamānuyoga,
2. Karaṇānuyoga,
3. Caraṇānuyoga and
4. Dravyānuyoga.

The first one refers to such scriptures like the ^'Mahāpurāna', 'Harivaṁśapurāna', Tadmapurāṇa' etc. which deal with the lives of sixty-three great men and illustrating the principles of human life and liberation. Karaṇānuyoga refers to such scriptures that contain detailed discussion about the universe, the loka (this world) and the aloka, the world beyond. 'Trilokasāra' and 'Tiloyapaṇṇatti' etc. are books that treat this subject with implications on transmigration and the uncertainties of time and births in the four kinds of gatis. Caraṇānuyoga deals with the content, development and perfection of conduct; these matters have been dealt with in works like 'Mūlā-cāra', 'Ratnakaraṇḍa-Srāvakācāra' 'Puruṣārtha-siddhyupāya' etc. The last one Dravyānuyoga deals with the six substances, the knowledge of which is most essential for a clear understanding of the principles of life and of the nine Padārthas which cover the entire field of metaphysical theories of Jainism. Kundakunda Acarya has dealt with these matters in the 'Samayasāra', 'Prava-canasāra', 'Pancāstikāya' etc. Umāsvāmi has discussed all matters connected with the last three Anuyogas. A study of these four Anuyogas forms the foundation for clear perception of all the principles of Jainism and acquisition of thorough knowledge of the same.

3) The third virtue is dhīratā or the sense of patient forbearance so that he can courageously put up with all the bodily afflictions like thirst, hunger etc. This virtue is necessary to keep him calm in the pursuit of his other vows and meditation in an undisturbed manner.

4) The fourth virtue relates to knowledge of the worldly life and social conditions so that he can preach his religion so as to suit different kinds of people residing in deferent regions and climates.

5) He must have sound knowledge of his own religion as also of other faiths; this would enable him to propound his views _f with intelligence and clarity even before men learned in different faiths.

6) He must be endowed with the power of eloquence so as to enable him to express himself clearly and with precision. There are chances of his being confronted with arguments by other people and it is necessary to clear their doubts with patience and sound reasons.

7) The seventh quality is possession of a good personality endowed with composure expressing a sense of reverence and calm. He should possess the three qualities like great learning, capacity for arduous penance and ability to head a group of disciples.

8) He must have expert knowledge of all religious lore with ability for convincing exposition. He must be tolerant and must bear out the principles of Anekāntavāda in his conduct; he must have compassion, forbearance and abandonment without attachment towards any worldly object. His external conduct should be exemplary and his activities always directed towards spiritualism and self-realization. He should be the messenger of his religion both by his speech and conduct.

9) His object must always be to protect all beings from harm so that whatever he says or does will evoke silent obedience by his disciples and others.

10) He must evoke confidence in others so that everyone could feel happy in his company and be inclined to approach him happily when advice is needed. He must speak with restraint and be sweet in his talks. He must have full patience to understand other's questions and answer them with understanding and sympathy.

Āśādhara has discussed other subjects which have been referred to above. It is however certain that the foundations of an ascetic's life and character are self-restraint and purity of mind and conduct. In order to achieve these objects, he has to practise both external (bāhya) and internal (antara) austerities. All writers who have dealt with the Yati-Dharma have discussed that matter. The austerities are self-imposed and follow as a matter of corollary after initiation into the vow of a Muni or Yati. The austerities have to be practised voluntarily for the mortification of the body to prepare the mind for complete withdrawal from the shackles of mundane life. There are six external austerities as mentioned by Umāsvāmi.^[16] They are: fasting (anaśana), taking food in reduced quantity (avamaudarya), predetermination as to the manner and number of houses in relation to begging (vṛttipari-sarikhyāna), giving up of juicy and delicious foods like milk, curds, oils etc., (rasaparityāga), choice of lonely habitation (vivikta- śayyāsana), and mortification of the body (kāya-kleśa). The object of these austerities is to gain greater self-restraint and destruction of attachment. Fasting is a well-recognised mode of subduing the senses. The second one refers not only to limiting of houses but also to acceptance of food only when certain prede­termined conditions are found. It has already been mentioned that he should not take food specially prepared for him. Diminished diet is intended to keep him alert for his studies and discourses. The fourth austerity of giving up of delicious and juicy diet assists him in curbing his passions and excitement of senses. Lonely habitation-helps him in living a life of celibacy, meditation and devoted quiet study. The last one relating to bodily mortification prepares him for a life of suffering and self-denial.

The internal austerities comprise expiation (prayścitta), respect for holy persons (vinaya), rendering service to ascetics in difficulty or suffering from some ailment (vaiyāvṛtya) study of the scriptures (svādhyāya) renunciation of all possessions including the sense of ego (vyutsarga) and meditation (dhyāna).^[17]

These internal austerities are intended to purify the mind with a view to attain greater concentration and meditation on the nature of the self. There cannot be real meditation unless the mind is rid of all sloth, indifference and carelessness. The first relates to an open and frank confession before a Guru of all lapses, transgressions, breaches of vows and rules of conduct; after confession, there should be real repentance accompanied by a determination not to allow such lapse or breach to be committed again through negligence or otherwise. Repentance is sure to arouse one's consciousness, vigilance and alertness in future speech or conduct. It virtually amounts to an act of self-condemnation, if the Guru suggests any precautions to be taken in any particular matter, that must be accepted with reverence and observed in practice. The second austerity requires development of humility and respect towards the Jaina, the Guru and the scriptures. The mundane and outward consequences of vinaya are wide recognition, friendship, respect, grace of Guru, obedience of the command of Jina and destruction of ill-will, while the inward and superman Dane fruits of vinaya are ease in self-restraint, penances, acquisition of knowledge, purification of the self, emergence of the feeling of gratitude, simplicity, commendation of other man's qualities, the destruction of conceit and lastly the attainment of emancipation.^[18] The third austerity of rendering service to other ascetics has already been explained.

Svādhyāya is self-study and study of the scriptures not only to enhance one's own knowledge of the scriptures but also to achieve firmer faith in the validity of the Jaina doctrines. Renunciation is both external and internal, of all material objects and of internal passions including the feeling of egoism.

Dhyāna or meditation is of vital importance for attainment of emancipation. It is of four finds:

1. ārta-dhyāna refers to contemplation of past associations which cause distress, pain and suffering. It occurs in the perverted and vacillating minds who are partially disciplined in the vows and austerities;
2. raudra-dhyāna occurs in the case of those ascetics whose mind is not still free from passions, anger, hiṁsā, falsehood, propagation of false doctrines, censure of others and pleasures of senses. These two are inauspicious (aprasyasta) kinds of meditations;
3. dharma-dhyāna implies reflection and meditation on the means of annihilating the karmas and getting release from worldly miseries and sufferings. To meditate upon the self by subduing all other thoughts is Dharma-Dhyana;
4. śukla-dhyāna is the best kind of meditation.

All inauspicious thoughts and desires are eliminated and there is annihilation of the passions that defile the soul. It is by practice of this pure kind of meditation that the soul becomes liberated. There are four kinds of Śukla-Dhyana. In the last kind, the Omniscient, after establishing himself in gross bodily-activity, makes the activities of the mind and speech subtle. Then after renouncing the bodily activity, he fixes himself in the activities of the mind and speech and makes the gross bodily activity subtle. Afterwards, the mental and vocal activities are stopped and subtle activity of the body is left. In the last type of Śukla- Dhyana, even the subtle activity of the body is stopped. The soul now becomes devoid of mental, vocal and physical, vibrations, and immediately after the time taken to pronounce five syllables it attains disembodied liberation.^[19]

The last vow which an ascetic has to observe is that of Sallekhana. It is common both to the house-holder and to the ascetics and hence is dealt with in a separate chapter.

It would be evident that the rules of conduct and the austerities which an ascetic has to observe are of an extremely difficult character and that only a person who is mentally prepared for a life of renunciation can be initiated into the stage. The fact that Jainism does not accept the principles of Varṇāśrama-Dharma of the Hindu religion might imply that a person might, become an ascetic at any age; but the principles underlying the eleven Pratimās and the fourteen Guṇasthānas establish that only a person who is imbued with full faith in the validity of Jaina philosophy and is possessed of right knowlede of Atman and matter, of Āhimsa and Aparigraha in all their aspects, and is prepared for a life of penance and of austerities can be a successful ascetic. It is a life of renunciation with readiness' to suffer all afflictions due to nudity, barefooted walking and sleeping on bare ground with a restricted a diet only once a day, if possible, spending all the time in study, preaching and meditation is what an ascetic stands for. It is in the fulfilment of the ethics and spiritual requirements of that life that his salvation lies.