Dr. N.L. Kachhara
In Jain metaphysics the universe comprises six kinds of substances. Two of them, Jiva (soul) and pudgala (matter), are active substances; the other four, dharmastikaya (the passive agent that helps the motion of jiva and pudgala), adharmastikaya (the passive agent that helps the rest position of jiva and pudgala), akasa (space) and kala (time), are inactive substances. Jiva is sentient and pudgala is non-sentient substance, and the two can combine according to defined rules. The smallest indivisible constituent of pudgala is paramanu; all matter and energy (or any other form of the physical order of existence) in the universe are aggregates of paramanu. The jiva is found in two states, pure and impure. All embodied souls are impure.
The term Jiva connotes that soul is conscious of itself, and consciousness is also invariably soul. The Jiva is the non-corporeal, living, eternal and permanent, and fixed (constant) substance of the Cosmic Universe, having the attribute of consciousness (Chetana). Jiva is the generic name of sentient substance. Jiva substance is non-physical and is not sense-perceptible; it does not have the properties of color, smell, taste, or touch. Consciousness and upayoga (the manifestation of consciousness) are the differentia of the jiva. Upayoga and consciousness are the two sides of the same entity, jiva. Consciousness may be interpreted as both a structure and a function of the jiva, but upayoga refers to the functional side only. Upayoga gives us almost the same meaning as “mentally active.” Just as “mental activity” is a fact of mental functioning and “mental capacity” is a fact of mental structure, upayoga may be considered a fact of the jiva’s function and consciousness or chetana may be considered a fact of the jiva’s structure.
Consciousness is the generality of the attributes that distinguish the jiva from the inanimate. Upayoga is the generality of the manifestations of such attributes. Both are comprehensions of the object by the subject. Intelligence (jnana) and self-awareness or awareness (darshana) are agreed to be the two main manifestations (upayoga) of consciousness. This shows that the attributes of intelligence and self-awareness alone cannot be given the status of consciousness in the structure of the jiva; these alone do not constitute the differentia of the jiva.
Consciousness in mundane souls manifests itself in several ways, including intelligence, knowledge, awareness, bliss, perception (cognitive elements), emotions, will, attitude and behavior, and awareness of pleasure and pain. Life and consciousness are coextensive: wherever there is life there is consciousness and vice versa. But there are degrees of explicitness or the manifestation of consciousness in different organisms. In the lowest class of organisms it is very much latent, while in human beings it is very much manifest. Jiva is entirely distinct from inanimate existence, which does not possess consciousness.
Among the many capacities of the (mundane) soul, the main and most comprehensible of all are the capacity of cognition and perception, capacity of energy, capacity of volition or desire, and capacity of attitude of mind or belief. Knowledge is the output of cognition on the manifestation of jnana, intelligence; perception is the awareness of an impression formed in a particular context. Jiva is endowed with energy, exertion, action, strength, effort and vigor, and it manifests its sentiency by its own state, because, having the inherent attribute of consciousness, the soul attains cognition of infinite modes of all kinds of knowledge and wrong knowledge, self-awareness, etc.
The soul is jnana (intelligence), endowed with right knowledge in some respects and also wrong knowledge in other aspects; the jnana itself is invariably soul, for consciousness is its inherent quality. Soul is the knower and jnana is the means of knowing. Similarly, self-awareness and awareness of outside objects are correlated, because the soul is possessed of the natural capacity of taking note of external objects: it is the knower. It is also invariably self-awareness (darshana) and self-awareness is invariably soul itself.
The life-essentials of worldly embodied souls are represented by (up to) five senses; mental, vocal and bodily activities; the duration of life; and respiration. Whatever things or behaviours it makes are reflected in it; one fine material body, called the karma body, contains an impression of these forces and activities, and it exists at the time of forming another body on rebirth.
Jiva, and karmas, made of a special type of pudgala-skandhas (karmanvargana), are mutually associated. Karma pudgalas affect jiva in a peculiar way. All the souls in this universe undergo effects such as sorrow, happiness, birth, death etc. as long as they are afflicted by karma-pudgalas. The souls who are emancipated from the effects of karma-pudgalas are designated as “Paramatma” or “Siddha.”
Jiva, though conscious and non-corporeal, becomes effectively corporeal on account of association with the corporeal body formed. As to its relation with the body, it is defined that the mundane soul is identical to the body, with the former existing in the latter. Thus the soul is both corporeal and non-corporeal, conscious and non-conscious, living and non-living, and it is of beings and non-beings also. The dimension (parimana) of the soul decreases or increases in accordance with the size of the body. This change does not affect the soul’s fundamental substantiality; its basic nature remains unchanged. This is one kind of the doctrine of transformation and also the doctrine of permanence-in-change. The other aspect is variation in the manifestation of the quality or capacity of the soul.
Souls are existent in every iota of space, beginning with one or more countless fractions of it and ending with the whole universe. In other words, if space is divided into countless points, called pradesas, the size of a soul can be so small as to occupy one or more of these points of space; in special cases, of samudaghata, the size of a single soul can fill the whole universe. The number of pradesas in each individual soul is assumed to be equal to the number of pradesas in the Universe, which is countless. There is no place in the universe where there is no existence of souls having either fine or gross bodies.
There are an infinite number of souls in both the mundane and the emancipated categories. In the multitude of souls, the inherent capacity of a soul is accepted as one (i.e. equal to all others); nevertheless, the manifestation of each one is not equal, but it is conditional upon the strength of its efforts (purusartha) and other causes. This means that the capacity of soul is one, viz. consciousness, but it manifests itself in and through the different stages. Soul in the absolute sense is imperishable, immortal and impenetrable; no one can cause pain or destruction to it, or can cut it with a sharp weapon or burn it with fire; no weapon can enter into it.
The soul is eternal from the point of view of time and non-eternal from that of the state of existence (gati), as studied from its substantial and modal aspects respectively: for it was in the past, is at present and will be in future, and it undergoes a change or transformation from one mode (life) to another.
In a nutshell, the nature of Jiva as conceived in Jain philosophy is super sensuous, imperishable, immortal, impenetrable, non-corporeal, eternal and non-eternal, infinite and finite, and dynamic in nature.
In general, the following facts apply to the soul:
- In embodied existence, soul and body appear to be same, but this is not really so. Body is different from soul.
- Soul contracts or expands to occupy the space of the body. The same soul can pervade the body of an elephant or an ant. Notwithstanding the size of the body, the number of pradesas of soul remains the same (i.e. countless).
- Soul in the absolute sense is non-corporeal and is recognized by its power of perceiving and knowing objects.
- Soul is the source of awareness, knowledge, perception, happiness and vitality in a living organism.
- Being invisible, soul is identified by its ability of cognizance; an embodied soul desires amusement, recreation, pleasure, speech, movement, etc.
- The karma pudgalas attracted by a soul are converted into karma unaided.
- The thoughts and actions of a soul leave a permanent impression. These impressions are stored in the karma body, which moves with the soul in its journey from one body to another.
- The bondage of soul and karma is beginning less. Karma can be shed from the soul by practicing austerity and penance. In fact, this is the way to get rid of karma and attain the state of emancipation.
- Soul is non-corporeal but is embodied due to the impurities caused by karma.
- All living organisms have similar potential powers and abilities, but every living organism is in a different state of manifestation. The development of the soul is determined by its purifying efforts and other karma-related factors.
- There is no place in loka where soul is not present in either subtle or gross form.
